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BROWN'S  SMALL   GRAMMAR  IMPROVED 

O 


THE 


FIRST    LINES       ^  Ch  0 

ENGLISH    GRAMMAIfertf 

BEING    A  ZjQ     5s»       «■ 

O  g     ^ 

BRIEF  ABSTRACT  OF  THE  AUTHOR'S  LARGER.  W^Sk,"*"*  «SC 


THE 


F^F 


"INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR."    S 

DESIGNED  FOR  TOUNa  LEARNERS. 


BY  GOOLD  BROWN, 

AUTHOR   OF  THE   GRAMMAR  OF    ENGLISH    GRAilMAna. 


"Ne  quis  igitur  tanquam  pavva  fastidiat  Grammatice?  eleraenta." — Quintilian. 
"The  rudiments  of  every  language  must  be  given  as  a  task,  not  as  an  amusemonf 
-Goldsmith. 


A    NEW     EDITION. 

ITII     EXERCISES     IN     ANALYSIS     AND     PARSING 

BY  HEXRY  KIDDLE,   A.  M., 

ASSISTANT   BTJPEEINTEXDENT   OF   COMMON    SCHOOLS,    NEW    YOEK   CITT. 


NEW    YORK 

WILLIAM  WOOD  &  CO.,  61  WALKER  STREET 
18G8. 


-Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  tlie  year  1856,  by 

GOOLD    BE  OWN, 

In  the  ^^lerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1862,  by 

S.    S.    &    W.    WOOD, 

In  f*^  Klerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the  Southern 

District  of  New  York, 


Eleotbottpkd  by  Smith  &  MoDottsal,  82  &  84  Beekman  Street 


Add  to  Lib* 

GHFT 


Btif 
JOHfl  S.  PRELL     /Uf 

Civil  &  Mechanical  Engineer,  ^Mu,. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL.  UiM^ 

PREFACE  TO  THE  BEYISED  EDITION. 


Since  the  completion  and  publication  of  my  Grammar  of  EngliBh 
Grammars,  it  bas  frequently  been  suggested  to  me,  that  a  new  and 
critical  revision  of  the  Institutes  and  First  Lines,  to  present  them 
in  a  state  of  stricter  conformity  to  that  more  elaborate  'vork,  and 
to  obviate  at  the  same  time  some  remaining  defects  vhich  had 
occasionally  been  noticed,  might  be  the  means  of  increasing  the 
usefulness,  and  sustaining  the  reputation  of  these  pretty  widely 
known  school-books.  Such  an  improvement  of  the  Institutes  the 
Jiuthor  carefully  prepared  for  the  stereotypers  during  the  last  year. 
Having  now  performed,  in  like  manner,  and  with  proportionate 
pains,  a  new  revision,  or  a  sort  of  recasting,  of  the  First  Lines  of 
English  Grammar,  he  may  perhaps,  without  lack  of  modesty, 
commend  this  little  book  to  the  managers  of  schools,  as  being, 
in  his  own  estimation  at  least,  the  best  and  cheapest  epitome  of 
English  Grammar  yet  offered  to  thtir  choice. 

GooLD  Brown. 

Ltxw,  Mass.,  1855, 


878 


ORIGINAL    PREFACE. 


The  following  epitome  contains  a  general  outline  of  the  princi. 
pies  of  our  language,  as  embodied  and  illustrated  in  "  The  Institutes 
of  English  Grammar."  The  definitions  and  explanations  here 
given,  are  necessarily  few  and  short.  The  writer  has  endeavoured 
to  make  them  as  clear  as  possible,  and  as  copious  as  his  limits  would 
allow;  but  it  is  plainly  impracticable  to  crowd  into  the  compass  of 
a  work  like  this,  all  that  is  important  in  the  grammar  of  our  lan- 
guage. Those  who  desire  a  i^.ore  complete  elucidation  of  the 
subject,  are  invited  to  examine  the  autlior's  larger  work. 

For  the  use  of  young  learners,  small  treatises  are  generally  pre- 
ferred to  large  ones;  because  tliey  are  less  expensive  to  parents, 
and  better  adapted  to  the  taste  and  capacity  of  children.  A  small 
treatise  on  Grammar,  like  a  small  map  of  the  world,  may  serve  to 
give  the  learner  a  correct  idea  of  the  more  prominent  features  of 
the  subject;  and  to  these  his  attention  should  at  first  be  confined; 
for,  without  a  pretty  accurate  knowledge  of  the  general  scheme,  the 
particular  details  and  nice  distinctions  ot  criticism  can  neither  be 
understood  nor  remembered. 

The  only  successful  method  of  teaching  grammar,  is,  to  cause  the 
principal  definitions  and  rules  to  be  committed  thoroughly  to  mem- 
ory, that  they  may  ever  afterwards  be  readily  applied.  And  the 
pupil  sljould  be  alternately  exercised  in  learning  small  portions  of 
his  book,  and  then  applying  them  in  parsing,  till  the  whole  is  ren- 
dered familiar. 

The  learner  who  shall  thus  go  through  this  little  work,  will,  it  is 
imagined,  acquire  as  good  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  as  is  to  be 
derived  from  any  of  the  abridgements  used  in  elementary  schools. 
And,  if  he  is  to  pursue  the  study  further,  he  will  then  be  prepared 
to  read  with  advantage  the  more  copious  illustrations  and  notes 
contained  in  the  larger  work,  and  to  enter  upon  the  various  exer- 
cises adapted  to  its  several  parts. 

This  work  is  in  no  respect  necessary  to  the  other,  as  it  contains 
the  same  definitions,  and  pursues  the  same  plan.  The  use  of  it  in 
the  early  stages  of  pui)ilage  will  preserve  a  more  expensive  book 
from  being  soiled  and  torn  ;  and  the  scholar's  advancement  to  the 
larger  work  may  be  expected  to  increa&e  his  pleasure  and  accelerate, 
his  progress  in  the  study. 

GOOLD   BkD.TN' 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


Original  Preface  of  1826  ; 

Pretace  to  the  Eevised  Edition ;  .... 

Defiuitiou  and  Division  of  English  Grammar ;  . 

Piil?T  L— OETHOGKAPHY. 


PAGH 

.  iii 
.  iv 
.      9 


Chapter  I.— Of  Letters ; 

Names  of  the  Letters  ; 

Classes  of  the  Letters ; 

Forms  of  the  Letters  ; 

Eules  for  Capitals  ;    . 
Chapter  IL— Of  Syllables  ; 

Diphthongs  and  Triphthongs  ;      12 

Sales  for  byllabication ;    .        ,13 


PAGE 

9 
10 
10 
11 
11 
12 

2 


Chapter  III.— Of  Words ;     . 

Species  and  Figure  of  Words ; 

Eules  for  the  Figure  of  Words  ; 
Chapter  IV.— Of  Spelling ;   . 

Eules  for  Spelling  ;   . 
Chapter  V. — Exercises  in  Ortho- 
graphy ;  .        .        .        . 


PAGE 

,  13 
13 
14 
15 

15 


17 


PAET  II.— ETYMOLOGY. 


PAGE 

The  Parts  of  Speech  ;  18 

.  20 

.  22 

.  22 

.  23 

.  24 

.  25 

.  26 

.  27 

.  28 

.  29 

.  30 

.  32 

.  33 

.  36 

.  37 

.  39 

.  40 

.  41 


Chapter  I. 

Parsing ;    . 
Chapter  II.— Of  Articles  ; 
Chapter  111.— Of  Nouns  ; 
Persons 
Numbers ; 
Genders ; 
Cases ; 
l)eclension  of  Nouns ; 
Analysis  and  Parsing ; 
Chapter  IV. — Of  Adjectives 
Comparison  of  Adjectives 
Analysis  and  Parsing  ; 
Chapter  V. — Of  Pronouns  ; 
Declension  of  Pronouns; 
Analysis  and  Parsing : 
Chapter  VI.— Of  Verbs; 
Moods ; 
Tenses ; 


Chapter    VI.— Of  Persons     and 
N  umbers ;      .        .        . 
Conjugation  of  Verbs ; 

I.  SnnpJe  Form,  to  Love; 
Second  Example,  to  See  ; 
Third  Example,  to  Be  ; 

II.  The  Compound  Form ; 

III.  Form  of  Passive  Verbs  ; 
Irregular  Verbs ; 
Eeduudant  Verbs ;    . 
Defective  Verbs; 

Chapter  VII.— Of  Participles ; 

Analysis  and  Parsing ; 
Chapter  VIIL— Of  Adverbs; 
Chapter  IX. — Of  Conjunctions  ; 
Chapter  X. — Of  Prepositions  ; 
Chapter  XL — Of  Interjections ; 

Analysis  and  Parsing ;  .        , 


PAGS 

42 

42 
43 
43 
50 
53 
55 
59 
61 
63 
63 
65 
67 
69 
70 
71 
71 


Chapter   I.  — Of    Eelation    and 
Agreement;   . 
Eule  I.— Of  Articles  ; 
Eule  II. — Of  Nominatives  ; 
Eule  III.— Of  Apposition ; 
Eule  IV.— Of  Adjectives  ; 
Etde  v.— Of  Pronouns;    . 


PAET  III.— SYNTAX. 

PAGE 


74 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 


Eule  VI.— Of  the  Pronoun  after 

a  Collective  Noun ; 
Eule    VTL— Of    the    Pronoun 

after  Joint  Antecedents ; 
Eule  VIIL— Of   the  Pronoun 

after  Disjunct  Antecedents ; 
Eule  IX.— Of  Finite  Verbs  ;    . 


78 

79 

79 
79 


VUl 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Eule  X.— Of  the  Verb  with  a 

Collective  Noun  ;  .        .        .80 
Kule  XL— Of  the  Verb  with 

Joint  Nomiuatives ;       .        .80 
Kule  XII.— Of  the  Verb  with 

Disjunct  Nominatives  ;          .     81 
Kule  XIIL— Of   Verbs    Con- 
nected ; 81 

Kule  XIV.— Of  Participles  ;  .  82 
Kule  XV.— Of  Adverbs ;  .  .83 
Kule  XVI.— Of  Conjunctions  ;  84 
Kule  XVII.— Of  Prepositions;  84 
Kule  XVIII.— Of  Interjections ;    85 


Chapter  II.— Of  Government ;     .  85 

Eule  XIX.— Of  Possessives  ;    .  85 

Kule  XX.— Of  Objectives;       .  86 

Kule  XXI. — Of  Same  Cases  ;    .  86 

Kule  XXII.— Of  Objectives;    .  87 

Kale  XXIII Of  Infinitives  ;  .  88 

Kule  XXI V._Of  Infinitives;    .  88 
Kule  XXV.— Of  the  Case  Ab- 
solute;    88 

Kule  XXVI.— Of  Subjunctives ;  89 
Chapter  III. — Examples  of  False 

Syntax  ; 90 

Chapter  IV. — Analysis  and  Pars- 
ing ; 96 


PAKT  IV.— PKOSODY. 


PAGE 

Chapter  I. — Of  Punctuation  ;       .107 
Section  I. — Of  the  Comma;      .108 
Section    II.  — Of    the     Semi- 
colon;      108 

Section  III.— Of  the  Colon  ;  .  Iu9 
Section  IV.— Of  the  Period  ;  .  109 
Section  V.— Of  the  Dash;  .  109 
Sectioii  VI.— Of  the  Eroteme  ; .  109 
Section   VII. — Of  the   Ecpho- 

neme ; 109 

Section  VIII.— Of  the  Curves ;    110 
Section    IX.  — Of    the    Other 
Marks; 110 

Chapter  II.— Of  Utterance  ; .  .111 
Section  I. — Of  Pronunciation  ;  111 
Section  II.— Of  Elocution  ;        .112 

Chapter  III.— Of  Figures ;   .        .113 


FAGB 

Section  I. — Figures  of  Ortho- 
graphy; ....  113 
Section   II. — Figures    of  Ety- 
mology ;         ....  113 
Section  III. — Figures  of  Syn- 
tax ;        .        .        .      f .        .  114 
Section  IV.— Figures  of  Khet- 

oric ; 115 

Chanter  IV.— Of  Versification  ;  .  117 
Section  I.— Of  Quantity  ;  .  .  117 
Sec'Jonll.— OfKhyme;  .  .117 
Section  III.— Of  Poetic  Feet;  .  117 
Section  IV.— Of  Scanning ;  .  118 
I.  Iambic  Verse  ;  .  .  118 
II    Trochaic  Verse ;     .        .118 

III.  Anapestic  Verse ;  .        .  118 

IV.  Dactylic  Verse ;     .        .  118 


APPENDIX.— A  KEY  to  False  Syntax ; 


120 


THE 

FIRST     LINES 

OP 

ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


X 

E:n'glish  GEA^niAR  is  tlie  art  of  speaking,  read* 
ing,  and  writing  the  English  language  correctly. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts ;  namely,  Orthog* 
rapliy,  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separ- 
ate words,  and  spelling. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of 
speech,  with  their  classes  and  modifications. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  gov- 
ernment, and  arrangement,  of  words  in  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  fig- 
ures, and  versification. 


PART    I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separ- 
ate words,  and  spelling. 

CHAPTER  I.— OF  LETTERS 

A  Letter  is  an  alphabetic  mark,  or  character, 
commonly  representing  some  elementary  sound 
of  a  word. 


10  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART   I. 

An  elementary  sound  of  a  word,  is  a  simple  or 
primary  sound  of  the  human  voice,  used  in  speak- 


mg. 


The  letters  in  the  English  alphal^et  are  twenty- 
six  \  Aa.Bh,  Oc,  D  d,  E  e,  F  f\  G  g,  Hh,  I  i, 
Jj,  K\  LI,  Mm,  Nn,  0  o,  F p,  Q  a,  Br, 
j$s,Tt,  Uu,   Vv,  Ww,Xx,  Yy,Zz, 

Ohservation  1. — The  names  of  the  letters,  as  now  cominonly 
spoken  find  written  in  English,  are  vl,  Bee^  Cee^  Dee^  J?,  Eff^  GeCy 
Aitch,  /,  Jay^  Kay,  Ell,  Em^  En,  0,  Fee,  Kue,  Ai\  Ess,  Tee,  If, 
Vee,  I)ouhle-u,  Ex,  Wy,  Zee. 

Obs.  2. — Tliese  names,  like  those  of  the  days  of  the  week,  thouj^h 
they  partake  the  nature  of  nouns  ])roper,  may  foi-m  regular  plurals; 
tlius,  Acs,  Bees,  Gees,  Dees,  Ees,  Effs,  Gees,  Aiiches,  les.  Jays,  Kays, 
EUs^  Ems,  Ens,  Ocs,  Pees,  Kues,  Ars,  Esses,  Tees,  lies,  Yees,  Double- 
ties,  Exes,  Wles,  Zees. 

Obs.  3. — Unlike  the  other  letters,  all  the  principal  vowels — 
whether  capitals,  as  A,  E,  J,  O,  U,  or  small  forms,  as  a,  e,  i,  o,  u — 
name  themselves;  cacli  of  them,  as  the  name  of  itself,  having  the 
long,  primary  sound  with  which  it  usually  forms  an  accented  sylla- 
ble ;  as  in  Abel,  Enoch,  Isaac,  Obed,  Uvim.  The  other  letters, 
though  they  never  actually  or  fully  form  their  OAvn  names,  are 
often  used  in  lieu  of  them,  and  are  read  as  the  words  for  which 
they  are  assumed ;  as,  C,  for  Gee ;  F,  for  Eff;  J,  for  Jay ;  H,  for 
Aitch.  0 

CLASSES   OF  THE   LETTERS. 

The  letters  are  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
■vowels  and  consonants. 

A  vowel  is  a  letter  which  forms  a  perfect  sound, 
when  uttered  alone  ;  as,  a,  e,  o. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  which  cannot  be  per* 
fectly  uttered  till  joined  to  a  vowel ;  as,  h,  c,  d. 

The  vowels  are  a,  e,  ?',  o,  ii,  and  sometimes  w, 
and  y.     All  the  other  letters  are  consonants. 

Wor  y  is  called  a  consonant  when  it  precedes 
a  vowel  heard  in  the  same  syllable  ;  as  in  wmej 
twine,  ivlime,  ye,  yet,  youth:  in  all  other  cases, 
these  letters  are  vowels ;  as  in  newly,  dewy,  eye* 
hi'ow, 

Oia^  1,— XL©  consonants  are  divided  into  mutei  and  semivowels^ 


CHAP.   I.]  ORTHOGRAPHY. — LETTERS.  11 

Ols.  2. — A  mule  is  a  consonant  wliicli  cannot  be  sounded  at  all 
■without  a  vowel.     The  mutes  are  &,  d,  Tc^  j^t  9i  i->  ^^^^  ^  ^"<^1  i7  hj^J'd. 

Ohs.  3. — A  semivowel  is  a  consonant  wiiich  can  be  imperfectly 
sounded  without  a  vowel.  The  semivowels  are  y,  A,  j,  ?,  7n,  n,  r, 
s,  V,  w^  X,  y,  2,  and  c  and  g  soft.  Of  these,  Z,  ^/2,  ?/,  and  r,  ara 
termed  liquids^  on  account  of  the  fluency  of  their  sounds. 

FORMS   OF  THE   LETTERS. 

In  the  English  language,  the  Koman  characters 
are  generally  employed  ;  sometimes  the  Italic ; 
and  occasionally  the  ©15  ^uqUsI).     In  ivritiiig^  we 

use  the  S^cu/i^. 

The  letters  have  severally  two  forms,  by  which 
they  are  distinguished  as  capitals  and  small  let- 
ters. 

Small  letters  constitute  the  body  of  every  work ; 
and  capitals  are  used  for  the  sake  of  eminence 
and  distinction. 

PvULES  FOR  THE  USE  OF  CAPITALS. 

Rule  I. — Titles  of  Books. 

The  titles  of  books,  and  the  heads  of  their  principal  divisions, 
should  be  printed  in  capitals.  When  books  are  merely  mentioned, 
the  principal  words  in  their  titles  begin  with  capitals,  and  the 
other  letters  are  small ;  as,  ''  Pope's  Essay  on  Man." 

Rule  II. — Fikst  Wokds. 

The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence,  or  of  any  clause  separ- 
ately numbered  or  paragraphed,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Rule  III, — I^ames  of  the  Deity. 

All  names  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  capitals;  as,  God^ 
Jehovah^  the  Almighty^  the  Supreme  Being. 

Rule  IV. — Proper  Names. 

Titles  of  office  or  honour,  and  proper  names  of  every  description, 
should  beizin  with  canitals;  as,  Chief  Justice  Hale^  William^  Lon- 
don^ the  Parh^  the  Albion.,  the  Spectatoi\  the  Thames. 

Rule  Y.— Objects  Personified. 

The  name  of  an  object  personified,  when  it  conveys  an  idea 
strictly  individual,  should  begin  with  a  capital;  as, 

*'  Come,  gentle  Sjmng,  ethereal  mildness,  come." 
I* 


12  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  ^ 

Rule  YI. — Words  Derived. 
Words  derived  from  proper  names  of  persons  or  places,  should 
begin  with  capitals  ;  hq^  JSfcw  Ionian^  Grecian^  lioman. 

Rule  YIL— I  and  O. 
The  words  /and  0  should  always  be  capitals;  as,  "Out  of  the 
depths  have  /cried  unto  thee,  0  Lord." — Psalms. 

Rule  VIII. — Poetry. 
Every  line  in  poetry,  except  what  is  regarded  as  making  but 
one  verse  with  the  line  preceding,  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 
*'  Our  sons  their  fathers'  failing  language  see, 
And  such  as  Chaucer  is,  shall  Dryden  be."— Poj*^. 

Rule  IX, — Examples. 

A  full  example,  a  distinct  speech,  or  a  direct  quotation,  should 
begin  with  a  capital;  as,  "Remember  this  maxim:  'Knowthy" 
self.'  " — "  Yirgil  says,  '  Labour  conquers  all  things.'  " 

Rule  X. — Chief  Words. 
Other  words  of  particular  importance,  and  such  as  denote  the 
principal  subject  of  discourse,  may  be  distinguished  by  capitals, 
rroper  names  frequently  have  capitals  throughout. 


CHAPTER  IL— OF  SYLLABLES. 

A  SyllaUe  is  one  or  more  letters  pronounced 
in  one  sound,  and  is  either  a  word  or  a  part  of  a 
word  ;  as,  a^  an^  ant. 

In  every  word  there  are  as  many  syllables  as 
there  are  distinct  sounds  ;  as,  gram-ma-on-an. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosylla- 
lie  I  2L  word  of  two  syllables,  a  dissyllable;  a 
word  of  three  syllables,  a  trissyllahle  ;  and  a 
word  of  four  or  more  syllables,  a  polysyllable, 

DIPHTHONGS  AND  TRIPHTHONGS. 

A  dvpJithoiig  is  two  vowels  joined  in  one  sylla- 
ble ;  as,  ea  in  beat^  ou  in  sound. 

A  proper  diplitliong  is  a  diphthong  in  ^vhich 
both  the  vowels  are  sounded  ;  as,  oi  in  voice. 

An  improper  dipliilioiigh  a  diphthong  in  which 
only  one  of  the  vowels  is  sounded  ;  as,  oa  in  loaf. 


CHAP.   III.]  ORTHOGEAPHY. —  WORDS.  13 

A  tri'plitliong  is  three  vowels  joined  in  one  syl- 
lable ;  as,  eau  in  heau^  lew  in  view. 

A  proper  trifplithong  is  a  triphthong  in  which 
all  the  vowels  are  sounded  ;  as,  uotj  in  hnoy. 

An  improper  triplitliong  is  a  triphthong  in 
which  only  one  or  two  of  the  vowels  are  sounded; 
as,  eau  in  beauty. 

Ols.  1.— The  diphthongs  in  Enghsh  are  twenty-nine.  Some  of 
them,  being  variously  sounded,  may  be  either  proper  or  improper. 

Ohs.  2.— The pi'oper  diphtliongs  are  thirteen;  ay — ia,  ie^  io—oi^ 
ou,  ow^  oy — ua^  ue^  ui^  uo^  uy. 

Ohs.  3. — The  improper  diphthongs  are  twenty-six  ;  «a,  ae,  ai,  ao^ 
au^  aic^  ay—ea^  ee,  ei^  eo,  cw,  ew^  ey — ie — oa,  oe^  oi,  oo,  ou,  ow — ua, 
ue,  ui,  uo^  uy. 

Ohs.  4. — The  only  proper  triphthong  is  uoy.,  given  in  the  example 
above ;  unless  uoi.,  as  in  quoit.,  may  be  added. 

Ohs,  5. — The  improper  triphthongs  are  sixteen;  aice.,  aye — eau^ 
ecu,  ewe.,  eye — ieu^  ieic,  iou — oeu^  owe — wa/,  uaw^  uay^  uea.^  uee. 

Ohs.  6. — In  dividing  words  into  syllables,  we  are  to  be  directed 
chiefly  by  the  ear ;  it  may  however  be  proper  to  observe,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  following  rules: 

I.  Consonants  should  generally  be  joined  to  the  vowels  or  diph- 
thongs which  they  modify  in  utterance ;  as,  ap-os-tol-i-cal. 

II.  Two  vowels  coming  together,  if  they  make  not  a  diphthong, 
must  be  parted  in  dividing  the  syllables  ;  as,  a-e-ri-al. 

III.  Derivative  and  grammatical  terminations  should  generally  be 
separated  from  the  radical  words  to  which  they  have  been  added; 
as,  harm-less^  great-ly,  connect-ed. 

IV.  Pretixes,  in  general,  form  separate  syllables ;  as,  mis-jilace., 
out-ride.,  up-lift :  but  if  their  own  j)rimiuve  meaning  be  disre- 
garded, the  case  may  be  otherwise ;  thus,  re-create  and  rec-reaie 
are  words  of  diiferent  import. 

V.  Compounds,  when  divided,  should  be  divided  into  the  simple 
words  which  compose  them  ;  as,  no-where. 

VI.  At  the  end  of  a  line,  a  word  may  be  divided,  if  necessary; 
but  a  syllable*  must  never  be  broken. 


CHAPTER  III.— OF  WORDS. 

A  Word  is  one  or  more  syllables  spoken  or 
written  as  the  sign  of  some  idea,  or  of  some  man- 
Ut^r  of  thought. 

SPECIES  AND  FIGURE   OF   WORDS. 

Words  are  distinguished  as  primitive  or  deriv* 


14  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR,  [PART  1 

ative^  ancl  as  simple  or  compound.  The  former 
division  is  called  their  species ;  the  latter,  their 
figure. 

A  primitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  formed 
from  any  simpler  word  in  the  language  ;  as,  harm^ 
great^  connect. 

A  derivative  word  is  one  that  is  formed  from 
some  simpler  word  in  the  language  ;  as,  liarmless, 
greatly^  connected. 

A  sintple  word  is  one  that  is  not  compounded, 
not  composed  of  other  words  ;  as,  ivatcli^  man. 

A  compound  word  is  one  that  is  composed  of 
two  or  more  simple  words  ;  as,  watchman.^  never- 
tlieless. 

Obs.  1. — Permanent  compounds  are  consolidated;  as,  loolcseller^ 
sclwolmaster :  others,  which  may  be  called  temporary  compounds, 
are  formed  by  the  hyphen  ;  as,  glass-house^  negro-merchant. 

Obs.  2. — Tiie  compounding  of  words  produces  new  ones,  which 
are  not  always  good ;  and  the  sundering  of  just  compounds  pro- 
duces solecisms,  or  ungrammatical  phrases.  Hence  the  figure  of 
words  sliould  be  subjected  to  rules.  To  supply  so  obvious  a  want, 
I  have  framed  the  following  hints  : 

I.  Compounds. — Words  regularly  or  analogically  united,  and 
commonly  known  as  compounds,  should  never  be  needlessly  broken 
apart. 

II.  Simples. — When  the  simple  words  would  only  form  a  regu- 
lar phrase,  of  the  same  meaning,  the  compounding  of  any  of  them 
ought  to  be  avoided. 

III.  The  Sense.— Words  otherwise  liable  to  be  misunderstood, 
must  be  joined  together,  or  written  separately,  as  the  sense  and 
construction  may  happen  to  require. 

IV.  Ellipses. — When  two  or  more  compounds  are  connected 
in  one  sentence,  none  of  them  should  be  split  to  make  an  ellipsis 
of  half  a  word. 

V.  The  Hyphen.— When  the  parts  of  a  compound  do  not  fully 
coalesce,  as  to-day,  to-night,  to-morrow  ;  or  when  each  retains  its 
original  accent,  so  that  the  compound  has  more  than  one,  or  one 
that  is  movable,  a^  Jirst-born,  hanger-on,  laughter-loving,  the  hyphen 
should  be  inserted  between  them. 

YI.  No  Hyphen.— When  a  compound  has  but  one  accented  syl- 
lable in  pronunciation,  as  watchword,  statesman,  gentleman,  and  the 
parts  are  such  as  admit  of  a  complete  coalescence,  no  hypheq 
should  be  inserted  between  them. 


CHAP.    IV.]  ORTHOGRAPHY. —  SPELLING.  15 


t 


CHAPTER  iy.~OF  SPELLING. 


Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by  their 
proper  letters. 

Ohs. — This  important  art  is  to  be  acquired  rather  by  means  of 
the  spelling-book  or  dictionary,  and  by  observation  in  reading,  than 
by  the  study  of  written  rules.  The  orthography  of  our  language  is 
attended  with  much  uncertainty  and  peri)lexity :  many  words  are 
variously  spelled  by  tlie  best  scholars,  and  many  others  are  not 
usually  written  according  to  the  analogy  of  similar  words.  But  to 
be  ignorant  of  the  orthography  of  such  words  as  are  uniformly 
spelled  and  frequently  used,  is  justly  considered  disgraceful.  The 
following  rules  may  prevent  some  embarrassment,  uud  thus  be  of 
service  to  the  learner. 

RULES    FOR    SPELLING. 

Rule  I. — Final  F,  L,  ok  S. 

Monosyllables  ending  in  y,  Z,  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
double  the  final  consonant:  as^  sta^^  7nill, j^ass ;  except  three  in/" 
— clef^  if^  of;  four  in  l—hul^  nul^  sal^  sol;  and  eleven  in  s—as,  gas^ 
has,  icas^  yes,  is,  his,  this,  us,  thus,  pus. 

Rule  II. — Other  Finals. 

Words  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than  f^  I,  or  s,  do  not 
double  the  final  letter ;  excei)t  abb,  ebb,  add,  odd,  egg,  inn,  err,  burr, 
pu7'r,  yarr,  butt,  buzz,  fuzz,  and  some  proper  names. 

^-- — "     ~~  Rule  IIL— Doubling, 

Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  when 
they  end  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  or 
by  a  vowel  after  qu,  double  their  linal  consonant  before  an  addi- 
tional syllable  that  begins  with  a  vowel:  as,  rob,  robber ;  permit^ 
f/ermitting  ;  acquit,  acquittal,  acquitting. 

Exception. — X  final,  being  equivalent  to  Jcs,  is  never  doubled. 

Rule  IV. — Xo  Doubling. 

A  final  consonant,  when  it  is  not  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  or 
when  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  should  remain  single 
before  an  additional  syllable :  as,  toil,  toiling  ;  visit,  visited  ;  gen- 
^^al^  generalize. 

Exo. — But  I  and  s  final  are  often  doubled,  (though  perhaps  im- 
properly,) when  the  last  syllable  is  not  accented:  as,  travel,  tra- 
velled; bias,  biassed. 

Rule  V. — Retaining. 
Words  <n<ling  with  any  double  letter,  preserve  it  double  before 


16  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  I. 

any  additional  termination  not  beginning  with  the  same  letter;  as 
in  the  following  derivatives-,  seeing,  blissful,  oddly,  hilly,  stiffness^ 
illness,  smallness,  carelessness,  agreement,  agreeable. 

Exc. — The  irregular  words,  Jied,  sold,  told,  dwelt,  spelt,  sjnlt^^ 
shall,  wilt,  blest,  past,  and  the  derivatives  from  the  word  ponti^] 
are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

Rule. YI.— Final  E. 

The  final  e  mute  of  a  primitive  word  is  generally  omitted  bo 
•fore  an  additional  teruduation  beginning  with  a  vowel :  as,  rate^ 
ratable ;  force,  forcible ;  rave,  raving  ;  eye,  eying. 

Exc— Words  ending  in  ce  or  ge  retain  the  e  before  able  or  ovs^ 
to  preserve  tlie  soft  sound  of  c  and  g :  as,  peace.,  peaceable  /  change^ 
changeable ;  outrage.,  outrageous. 

Rule  VII.— Final  E. 

The  final  ^  of  a  primitive  word  is  generally  retained  before  an 
additional  termination  beginning  with  a  consonant :  as,  pale,  pale' 
ness ;  lodge,  lodgement. 

Exo. — When  the  e  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  sometimes  omit 
ted ;  as,  true,  truly  ;  awe,  awful :  and  sometimes  retained ;  as,  rue, 
rueful;  shoe,  shoeless. 

Rule  YIII.— Final  Y. 

The  final  y  of  a  primitive  word,  when  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
is  changed  into  i  before  an  additional  termination :  as,  merry,  mer- 
rier, merriest,  merrily,  merriment;  pity,  pitied, pities,  pitiest,  piti- 
less, pitiful,  pitiable. 

Exc. — Before  ing,  y  is  retained,  to  prevent  the  doubling  of  i ;  as 
pity.,  pitying.  AVords  ending  in  ie,  dropping  tlie  e  by  Rule  YI, 
change  i  into  y,  for  the  same  reason;  as,  die,  dying. 

Obs. — When  a  vowel  ])recedes,  y  sliould  not  be  changed;  as,  day., 
days ;  xalley.,  'valleys ;  money,  moneys ;  mofikey^  monkeys. 

Rule  IX. — Compounds. 

Compounds  generally  retain  the  orthogra]jhy  of  the  simple  words 
which  compose  them;  as,  hereof,  wherein,  horseman,  recall,  ujjhill^ 
shellfish. 

Exc. — In  permanent  compounds,  the  ^vonhfull  and  all  drop  one 
I;  as,  handful,  careful,  always,  withal:  in  others,  they  retain  both; 
B,ii,  full-eyed,  all-wise,  save-all. 

Obs. — Other  words  ending  in  II  sometimes  im])roper1y  drop  one 
Z,  when  taken  into  composition,  as  iniscal,  downhil.  This  excision 
is  reprehensible,  because  it  is  contrary  to  general  analogy,  and  be- 
cause botii  letters  are  necessary  to  preserve  the  sound,  and  show 
the  derivation  of  tlie  compnund.  AVhere  is  the  consistency  of  writ- 
ing recall,  miscal — inthrall,  bethral — windfall,  doivnfal — laystall, 
thumbslal — loaterfall,  overfal — moleJi ill,  dunghil —windmill,  twibil 
— clodpoll,  enrol  ? — [See  Johnson's  Dictionary,  first  American  edi- 
tion 4to.] 


CHAP,  v.]  ORTHOaRAPHT. — EXERCISES.  17 

CHAPTER  Y.— EXERCISES. 


Exercise  I. 


Exercise  IL — State  from  what  primitive  word  each  of  the  folloic- 
in<r  derivatives  is  formed,  and  according  to  tchich  of  the  Hides  for 
Spelling. 

Compelled,  skillful,  holiday,  happiness,  courageous,  rebellion, 
traveler,  believing,  achievement,  spoonful,  galloping,  beautiful,  de- 
luder,  salable,  changeable,  narrator,  juiciness,  improvement,  love- 
liness, beggar,  spotted,  preference,  preferred,  variable,  conveyance, 
thralldom,  agreeable,  deriving,  shoeing,  business,  icicle,  impel,  be- 
ginner, manumitting. 

Exercise  TIT. — Form  as  many  derivati'ces  as  jpossihle  from  the  follow- 
ing primitives. 

Excel,  visit,  commit,  worship,  bury,  beaut}^  travel,  judge,  sin- 
cere, refer,  vary,  agree,  full,  delay,  busy,  tie,  differ,  occur,  expel, 
benefit,  dut)%  plan,  despoil,  narrate,  beg,  i)eri],  receive,  instruct, 
assemble,  pity,  define,  mimic,  compose,  form,  value,  charge,  animate, 
combat,  acquit,  abridge,  critic,  allege,  merchant,  tyrant,  fanc}',  drj', 
omit,  achieve,  whole,  compel,  tall,  debt,  write,  cancel,  rob,  spell. 

Exercise  TV. —  Corrpct  the  errors  in  the  following  words  according 
to  the  Rales  for  Spelling. 

Scof,  repell,  til,  untill,  rareity,  chimnies,  crosness,  outstriped^ 
pasport,  blisful,  slothfull,  merryness,  instiling,  refered,  preferruble, 
referible,  duely,  welspent,  benefitted,  improveing,  defering,  con- 
troll,  controlable,  dulness,  forgeting,  bigotted,  untieing,  moveable, 
pontifficate,  forceible,  awet'ul,  annull,  handfull,  al-powerfull,  fruit- 
fullness,  miscal,  wherin,  perillous,  fulfil,  appall,  uphil. 

Exercise  V. — Analyze  the  following  words.,  and  state  to  which  oj 
the  Rules  for  Spelling  they  are  exceptions. 

Excellence,  judgment,  bounteous,  gaiety,  said,  q^^.,  yes,  argu- 
ment, wholly,  abridgment,  traveller,  gaseous,  unpaid,  crystalline, 
cancelling,  development,  mutinous,  denying,  kidnapping,  daily, 
charitable,  plenteous,  babyhood,  truly,  this,  add,  unparalleled,  bias- 
sed, dryly,  awful,  welfare,  wherefore,  chilblain,  welcome,  Christmas. 


18  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

Exercise  VI. — Copy  the  following  sentences^    and  insert  or  omit 
capital  letters  according  to  the  Rales  for  Capitals. 

Goldsmith's  "deserted  village''  is  a  beautiful  poem.  The  lord  is 
a  great  god  above  all  Gods.  The  city  of  loodon  is  situated  on  the 
river  Thames.  The  hudsoii  river  was  discovered  by  Henry  hudson. 
the  roman  empire  was  divided  into  two  portions  at  the  death  of 
theodosius  the  great,  the  empire  of  the  West  being  governed  by 
Honorius  and  that  of  the  east,  by  arcadius.  O  liberty!  o  sound 
once  delightful  to  every  roman  ear !  epimanonda?,  the  thebau 
General,  was  remarkable  for  his  love  of  Truth,  he  never  told  a  lie 
even  in  Jest,  o  grave !  where  is  thy  victory  ?  And  god  spake 
unto  moses,  and  said  unto  him,  i  am  the  lord.  Pope  says,  "  order 
is  heaven's  first  law."  The  "lady  of  the  lake"  was  written  by  sir 
waiter  scott,  who  was  also  the  Author  of  the  waverley  novels. 

get  thee  back,  sorrow,  get  thee  back ! 
why  should  i  weep  while  i  am  young  ? 

i  have  not  piped— i  have  not  danced — 
my  morning  Songs  i  have  not  sung. 


PART     11. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of 
speech,  with  their  classes  and  modifications. 

CHAPTER  I.— THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

The  Parts  of  Speech,  or  sorts  of  words,  in  En- 
glish, are  ten  ;  namely,  the  Article,  the  Noun,  the 
Adjective,  the  Pronoun,  the  Verb,  the  Participle, 
the  Adverb,  the  Conjunction,  the  Preposition, 
and  the  Interjection. 

1.  The  Aeticle. 

An  Article  is  the  word  the^  an^  or  «,  which  we 
put  befoi'e  nouns  to  limit  their  signification:  as, 
the  air,  the  stars ;  an  island,  a  ship. 


chap.  i.]      etymology. —  parts  of  speech.  19 

2.  The  Noux 

A  Noun  IS  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  oi' 
tiling,  that  can  be  known  or  mentioned:  as, 
George^  Yorh^  man^  apple^  truth, 

8.  The  Adjective. 

An  Adjectiye  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  of 
pronoun,  and  generally  expresses  quality :  as,  /x 
wise  man ;  a  new  book. — You  two  are  diligent 

4.  The  Pronoun. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun : 
as,  The  boy  loves  lil'^  book ;  lie  has  long  lessons, 
and  lie  learns  tliem  well. 

5.  The  Yerb. 

A  Yerb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  he^  to  act^  or 
to  he  acted  iipon :  as,  I  cim^  I  ride^  I  am  ruled  '^  I 
love^  thou  love-si^  he  loves, 

6.  The  Participle. 

A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb, 
participating  the  properties  of  a  verb,  and  of  an 
adjective  or  a  noun  ;  and  is  generally  formed  by 
adding  ^V^^,  J,  or  ed^  to  the  verb  :  thus,  from  the 
verb  rule  are  formed  three  participles,  two  sim- 
ple and  one  compound;  as,  1.  ruling^  2.  ruled^  3. 
having  ruled, 

7.  The  Adverb. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  par- 
ticiple, an  adjective,  or  an  other  adverb ;  and 
generally  expresses  time,  place,  degree,  or  man- 
ner :  as,  They  are  noiu  liere^  studying  vei^y  dili^ 
gently, 

8.  The  Conjunction. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words 
or  sentences  in  construction,  and  to  show  the  de- 


20  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

pendence  of  the  terms  so  connected :  as,  '^  Thou 
and  he  are  happy,  hecau-SQ  you  are  good." — Mur. 

9.  The  Preposition. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some 
relation  of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  each 
other,  and  is  generally  placed  before  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun :  as.  The  paper  lies  before  me  on  the 
desk 

10.  The  Interjection. 

An  Interjeciion  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely 
to  indicate  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the 
mind :  as.  Ok  !  alas  !  ah  !  poh  !  iisliaw  ! 


PAESING. 

Parsing  is  the  resolving  or  explaining  of  a 
sentence  according  to  the  definitions  and  rules  of 
grammar. 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  making 
complete  sense  ;  as,  "  Beauty  fades." — -"  Reward 
sweetens  labor." 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

ExEECTSE  I. — Point  out,  ifv  the  following  sentences,  the  verb,  the  nouUy 
and  the  article^  and  parse  eaxih  as  in  the  example. 

Example  1. — "  The  man  walks." 

1.  Walki^  is  the  verb,  because  it  signifies  action. 

2   Man  is  the  nonn,  because  it  is  the  mime  of  a  person. 

8.  llie  is  the  article,  because  it  limits  the  eignification  oi  *h<i  noun,  ntun. 

The  sun  shines.  William  reads.  The  firo  burns.  The  ship 
sailed.  John  studies  grammar.  The  boy  tolu  an  untruth.  The 
horse  is  a  quadruped.  A  is  an  article.  The  fir  vfers  bloom.  Ducks 
swim.  Does  the  sun  shine?  Birds  build  nests.  Cohimbus  dis- 
covered America.  Hawks  kill  chickens.  Cain  slew  Abel.  The 
Bun  ripens  the  fruit. 


CHAP.  I.j      ETYMOLOGY. — EXERCISES  IN"  PARSING.  21 

Exercise  II. — Point  out  the  verb,  tJie  noun,  the  article,  th&  adjec- 
tive, and  the  pronoun,  and  parse  each  as  in  the  Jirst  and  second 
examples. 

Example  2, — "  An  idle  scholar  disgraces  liis  teacher." 

4.  Idle  is  the  adjective,  because  it  expresses  the  quality  of  scholar. 

5.  ^s  is  the  pronoun,  because  it  is  used  instead  of  the  noun  scholar, 

A  good  boy  obeys  bis  parents.  Sarali  learns  ber  lessons.  Uis- 
tory  is  a  useful  study.  A  disobedient  boy  disgraces  bis  parents. 
The  earth  is  a  round  body.  Boys  are  heedless.  They  disregard 
their  teachers.  Wisdom  is  the  principal  thing.  A  noble  mind 
scorns  a  mean  action.  Washington  was  a  true  patriot.  A  good 
book  is  an  interesting  companion.  William  found  the  money  which 
his  careless  brother  lost.  A  friend  should  bear  a  friend's  infirmi- 
ties. A  faithful  servant  studies  his  master's  interest.  A  cheerful 
temper  is  a  great  blessing. 

Exercise  III. — Distinguish  the  parts  of  sjjcech  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  parse  each  as  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  exampAes. 

Example  3. — "  The  good  scholar  attends  dihgently  and  carefully 

to  his  lessons." 

6.  Diligenil'i  and  carefully  are  adverbs,  because  they  are  added  to  the  verb 

attend^  and  express  manner. 

7.  And  is   a  conjunction,  because  It  connects  the  adverbs  diligently  and 

carejully. 

8.  To  is  a  preposition,  because  it  expresses  the  relation  of  the  verb  attend  to 

the  noun  lessons. 

John  and  Peter  are  good  scholars,  James  is  a  dishonest  and 
idle  lad.  The  rose  is  a  beautiful  and  fragrant  flower.  Prosperity 
gains  friends,  and  adversity  tries  them.  William  studies  diligently^ 
but  diaries  is  idle.  A  peach,  an  apple,  a  pear,  or  an  orange  is 
yery  delicious.  The  eagle  has  a  strong  and  piercing  eye.  Candor, 
sincerity,  and  truth  are  amiable  qualities.  Tlie  horse  runs  swiftly. 
Caisar  was  a  very  famous  general.  He  conquered  many  nations, 
and  invaded  the  island  of  Britain.  Hark  !  the  trumpet  sounds. 
Alas!  how  unfortunate  he  is!  The  industrious  and  attentive 
scholar  learns  with  great  ease  and  rapidity.  Virtuous  youth  grad- 
ually brings  forward  accomplished  and  flourishing  manhood.  Sloth 
enfeebles  equally  the  body  and  the  mental  powers.  If  thou  faint 
in  the  day  'of  adversity,  thy  strength  is  small. 

Exercise  iY. — State  rchat  part  of  speech  is  required  in  each  of  the 
following  sentences,  fill  the  tlanlcs  and  parse  each  word. 

The  man  walks  .     John  writes  .      Quicksilver  is 

bright shining.      boy   is   amiable talented; 

'  he   does   not  study.     •  is   beautiful fragrant. 


22  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

Set  the  book the .      The   bird   flew a   tree. 

The   ship  sailed tlie  harbor.     The  fear punishment 

crime.       My    father    lias   gone Boston, will 

return.     The  travelers  sat a fire.     The 

scholars  have  studied lessons,  and know well. 

The  hare  is  a timid  animal.     He  runs  away  very 

when  he the  least  noise. 


CHAPTER  IL— OF  ARTICLES. 

An  Article  is  the  word  tlie^  an,  or  a,,  wLicli  we 
put  before  nouns  to  limit  their  signification :  as, 
The  air,  the  stars  ;  an  island,  a  ship. 

An  and  a  are  one  and  the  same  article.  An  is  used  whenever 
'$he  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel  sound;  as,  An  art,  an  end» 
tm  heir,  an  inch,  an  ounce,  an  hour,  an  urn.  A  is  used  whenever 
tfte  following  word  begins  with  a  consonant  sound;  as,  A  man,  a 
liouse,  a  wonder,  a  one,  a  yew,  a  use,  a  ewer.  Thus  tlie  sounds  of 
w  and  2/,  even  when  expressed  by  other  letters,  require  a  and  not 
an  before  them. 

The  articles  are  distinguished  as  the  definite 
and  the  indefinite. 

The  definite  article  is  the^  which  denotes  some 
particular  thing  or  things;  as,  TJte  boy,  the 
oi'anges. 

The  indefinite  article  is  an  or  a,  which  denotes 
one  thing  of  a  kind,  but  not  any  particular  one ; 
as,  A  boy,  an  orange. 

Ohs. — A  common  noun  without  an  article  or  other  word  to  limit 
Its  signification,  is  generally  taken  in  its  widest  sense;  as,  "  A.  can- 
did temper  is  proper  for  man  ;  that  is,  for  all  mankind,'''' — Murray. 

CHAPTER  III— OF  NOUNS. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or 
thing,  that  can  be  known  or  mentioned ;  as, 
George^  Yor'k^  man^  apple,  truth. 


CHAP.  III.]  ETYMOLOGY. —  NOUNS.  2 


Q 


CLASSES. 

IN'ouns  are  divided  into  two  general  classes; 
proper  and  common. 

I.  K  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particu- 
lar individual,  or  people,  or  group  ;  as,  Adcmi^ 
Boston^  the  Hudson^  the  Momans^  the  Azores^ 
the  Alps. 

II.  A  commonnoun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind, 
or  class  of  beings  or  things ;  as,  Beast,  hlrd^  fi-^^h 
insect^  creatures^  persons^  children. 

The  particular  classes,  collective^  ahstmct,  and  verbal^  or 
participial,  are  usually  included  among  common  nouns. 
The  name  of  a  thing  sui  generis  is  also  called  common. 

1.  A  collective  noun,  or  noun  of  multitude,  is  the  name 
of  many  individuals  together ;  as,  Council,  meeting,  com- 
mittee,  fioch. 

2.  An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular 
quality  considered  apart  from  its  substance ;  as,  Good- 
ness, hardness,  pride,  frailty. 

8.  A  verbal  or  participial  noun  is  the  name  of  some  ac- 
tion or  state  of  being ;  and  is  formed  from  a  verb,  like  a 
participle,  bat  employed  as  a  noun  :  as,  "  The  triumphing 
of  the  wicked  is  short." — Job,  xx,  5. 

4.  A  thing  sui  generis  (i.  e.,  of  its  own  peculiar  Jcind,)  is 
something  which  is  distinguished,  not  as  an  individual 
of  a  species,  but  as  a  sort  by  itself,  without  plurality  in 
either  the  noun  or  the  sort  of  thing ;  as,  Galuanism^ 
music,  geometry. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Nouns  have  modifications  of  four  kinds  ;  name- 
ly, Persons^  JSfurahers^  Genders^  and  Cases. 

PERSONS. 

Persons,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that 
distinguish  the  speaker,  the  hearer,  and  the  per- 
son or  thing  merely  spoken  of. 

There  are  three  persons ;  the  first^  the  second^ 
and  the  third. 


24  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

The  first  person  is  that  which  denotes  the 
speaker  or  writer;  as,  ^^  I  Paul  have  written  it." 

The  second  person  is  that  which  denotes  the 
hearer,  or  the  person  addressed;  as,  ^'' Robert^ 
who  did  this  V 

The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  per- 
son or  thing  merely  spoken  of;  as,  ''''James  loves 
his  Z>(96>i." 

Oha.  1. — The  distinction  of  persons  belongs  to  nouns,  pronouns, 
and  finite  verbs ;  and  to  these  it  is  always  applied,  either  by  pecu- 
liarity of  form  or  construction,  or  by  inference  from  the  principles 
of  concord.  Pronouns  are  like  their  antecedents,  and  verbs  are 
like  their  subjects,  in  person. 

Ohs.  2. — The  speaker  seldom  refers  to  himself  by  name,  as  the 
speaker  ;  consequently,  nouns  are  rarely  used  in  the  first  person. 

Ohs.  3. — When  inanimate  things  are  spoken  to,  it  is  by  a  figiu*e  of 
Bpeech,  called  person  ijication, 

NUMBERS. 

Numbers,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that 
distinguish  unity  and  plurality. 

There  are  two  numbers ;  the  singular  and  the 
plural. 

The  singidar  number  is  that  which  denotes  but 
one ;  as,  "  The  hoy  learns." 

Theplu7rd  number  is  that  which  denotes  more 
than  one  ;  as,  "  The  hoys  learn." 

The  plural  number  oi  nouns  is  regularly  formed 
by  adding  s  or  es  to  the  singular :  as,  booh^  hoohs; 
hox^  boxes. 

Obs.  1. — The  distinction  of  numbers  belongs  to  nouns,  pronouns, 
and  finite  verbs  ;  and  to  these  it  is  always  applied,  either  by  pecu- 
liarity of  form,  or  by  inference  from  the  principles  of  concord. 
Pronouns  are  like  their  antecedents,  and  verbs  are  like  their  sub- 
jects in  number. 

Obs.  2. — When  a  singular  noun  ends  in  a  sound  which  will  unite 
•with  that  of  s,  the  plural  is  generally  formed  by  adding  s  only,  and 
the  number  of  syllables  is  not  increased :  as,  pen^  pens ;  grape^ 
grapes. 

Obs.  3. — But  when  the  sound  of  s  cannot  be  united  with  that 
of  ihe  primitive  word,  the  plural  adds  s  to  final  e,  and  es  to  other 


CHAP.  III.]  ETYMOLOGY. — NOUNS,  25 

terminations,  and  forms  a  separate  syllable  :  as,  page^  pages  ;  fox^ 
foxes. 

Ohs.  4.— Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add  es,  but 
do  not  increase  their  syllables:  as,  wo.,  woes ;  hero,  heroes.  Other 
nouns  in  o  add  s  only  :  as,  folio,  folios. 

Ohs.  5. — Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  y 
into  i,  and  add  es,  without  increase  of  syllables :  as,fi/,Jlies  ;  duty^ 
duties.     Other  nouns  in  y  add  s  only  :  as,  day,  days  ;  valley,  valleys, 

Ohs.  6. — The  following  nouns  inf,  change  f  into  v.,  and  add  eSj 
for  the  plural ;  sheaf,  leaf,  loaf,  heef  thief,  calf  half,  elf,  shelf,  self 
icolf  wharf;  as,  sheaves,  leaves,  etc.  Life^  lives;  knife,  knives; 
iDifp,  icives  ;  are  similar. 

Obs.  7. — The  greater  number  of  nouns  in  /  and/^  are  regular; 
eLS,Jifes,  strifes,  chiefs,  griefs,  gulfs,  etc. 

Obs.  8.— The  following  are  still  more  irregular:  man,  men; 
woman,  women ;  child,  children ;  brother,  brethren  [or  brothers'] ; 
foot,  feet ;  ox,  oxen  ;  tooth,  teeth ;  goose,  geese  ;  louse,  lice ;  mouse, 
mice ;  die,  dice ;  penny,  pence.  Dies,  stamps,  and  ^i^«7iiV5,  coins, 
are  regular. 

Obs.  9. — Many  foreign  nouns  retain  their  original  plural ;  as,  ar- 
canum, arcana  ;  radius,  radii ;  vortex,  vortices ;  axis,  axes ;  pheno' 
menon,  phenomena ,  serajih,  seraiJhim. 

Obs.  10. — Some  nouns  have  no  plural :  as,  gold,  pride,  meekness. 

Obs.  11. — Some  nouns  liave  no  singular:  as,  embers,  ides,  oats, 
scissors,  tongs,  vespers,  literati,  minutiae. 

Obs.  12.— Someareahke  in  both  numbers:  as,  sheep,  deer,  sicine, 
hose,  means,  odds,  neics,  species,  series,  ap)paratus. 

Obs.  13. — Compounds  in  which  the  principal  word  is  put  first, 
vary  the  principal  word  to  form  the  plural,  and  the  adjunct  to  form 
the  possessive  case :  as,  father-in-law,  fathers-in-law,  father-hi' 
laic's. 

Obs.  14. — Compounds  ending  in  ful,  and  all  those  in  which  the 
principal  word  is  put  last,  form  the  plural  in  the  same  manner  as 
other  nouns :  as  handfuls,  spoonfuls,  mouthfuls,  fellow -servants^ 
man-servants. 

Obs.  15. — Nouns  of  multitude,  when  taken  collectively,  admit  the 
plural  form  :  as,  meeting,  meetings.  But  when  taken  distributively, 
they  have  a  plural  signification,  without  the  form:  as,  "The  jw7-y 
were  divided." 

GENDERS. 

Genders,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that 
distinguish  objects  in  regard  to  sex. 

There  are  three  genders ;  the  7nasculine^  the 
fe^ninine^  and  the  neuter. 

The  masculine  gender  is  that  which  denotes 
persons  or  animals  of  the  male  kind ;  as,  man^ 
father^  Mng. 


26  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  11. 

^V^  feminine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  per- 
sons or  animals  of  the  female  kind ;  as,  icoman^ 
mother^  queen. 

The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things 
that  are  neither  male  nor  female ;  as,  ]^en^  inh^ 
paper. 

Ohs.  1. — The  different  genders  belong  only  to  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns ;  and  to  these  they  are  usually  applied  agreeably  to  the 
order  of  nature.  Pronouns  are  of  the  same  gender  as  the  nouns 
for  which  they  stand. 

Ohs.  2. — Some  nouns  are  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes;  as, 
cousin,  friend^  neighhoi\  parent.,  person.,  servant.  Tlie  gender  of 
these  is  usually  determined  by  the  context. 

Ohs.  3. — Those  terms  which  are  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes, 
(if  they  are  not  expressly  applied  to  females,)  and  those  plurals  which 
are  known  to  include  both  sexes,  should  be  culled  masculine  in  pars- 
ing; for,  in  all  languages,  the  masculine  gender  is  considered  the 
most  worthy,  and  is  generally  employed  when  both  sexes  are  in- 
cluded under  one  common  term. 

Ohs.  4. — The  sexes  are  distinguished  in  three  ways : 

I.  By  the  use  of  different  names  :  as,  hacheloi\  maid;  hoy.,  girl} 
hrother,  sister;  huch.,  doc;  hull.,  cow;  code.,  hen. 

II.  By  the  use  of  dilferent  terminations  :  as,  ahhot.,  ahhess ;  Jiero^ 
heroine ;  administrator.,  administratrix. 

III.  By  prefixing  an  attribute  of  distinction  :  as,  coclc-sjoarroic^ 
hen-sparroiD  ;  man-servant^  maid-servant ;  he-goat.,  she-goat ;  male 
relations.,  female  relations. 

Ohs.  5. — The  names  of  things  without  life,  used  literally,  are  al- 
ways of  the  neuter  gender.  But  inanimate  objects  are  often  repre- 
sented figuratively  as  having  sex.  Things  I'emarkable  for  power, 
greatness,  or  sublimity,  are  spoken  of  as  masculine:  as,  the  svn., 
time.,  death,,  sleep.,  fear,,  anger.,  winter.,  icar.  Things  beautiful,  ami- 
able, or  prolific,  ai"e  spoken  of  as  feminine;  as,  the  moon.,  earth,, 
nature.,  fortune.,  Imowledge.,  hope,  spring,  peace. 

Ohs.  6. — N<mns  of  multitude,  when  they  convey  the  idea  of  unity, 
or  take  the  plural  form,  are  of  the  neuter  gender;  but  when  tiiey 
convey  the  idea  of  plurality  without  the  form,  they  follow  the  gen- 
der of  the  individuals  that  compose  the  assemhlage. 

Ohs.  7. — Creatures  whose  sex  is  unknown,  or  unnecessary  to  be 
regarded,  are  generally  spoken  of  as  neuter :  as,  "  He  fired  at  the 
deer,  and  wounded  it.''^ — "■  If  a  man  shall  steal  an  ox  or  a  sheep  and 
kill  it  or  sell  i^,"  etc. — Exod..,  xxii.  1. 

CASES. 

Cases,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  dis* 
tinguish  the  relations  of  nouns  and  pronouns  to 
other  words. 


CHAP.  III.]  ETYMOLOGY. —  NOUNS.  27 

There  are  three  cases ;  the  nominative^  the 
jyosseS'Sive^  and  the  ohjective. 

The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  which  usually  denotes  the  sub- 
ject of  a  finite  verb  :  as,  The  hoy  runs  ;  /run. 

The  possessive  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  which  usually  denotes  the  re- 
lation of  property  :  as,  The  hoifs  hat ;  my  hat. 

The  ohjective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  which  usually  denotes  the  object 
of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition :  as,  I  know 
the  hoy  ;  he  knows  Que. 

Ob&.  1. — The  cases  belong  only  to  nouns  and  pronouns.  Pro- 
■douns  are  not  necessarily  like  tlieir  antecedents,  in  case. 

Oh.  2.— The  nominative  and  the  objective  of  nouns  are  always 
iilike,  being  distinguishable  from  each  other  only  by  their  place  in 
A  sentence,  or  their  simple  dependence  according  to  the  sense. 

Ohs.  3.— The  subject  of  a  verb  is  that  which  answers  to  who  or 
«^a^  before  it :  as,  *' The  boy  runs."— TF5^(?  runs?  The  &oy.  Boy 
is  therefore  here  in  the  nominative  case. 

Ohs.  4. — The  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition,  is  that 
which  answers  to  whom  or  what  after  it:  as,  "I  know  the  boy." — • 
I  know  whom  ?  The  hoy.  Boy  is  therefore  here  in  the  ohjective 
case. 

Obs.  5. — The  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  formed,  in  the  singular 
number,  by  adding  to  the  nominative  s  preceded  hy  an  apostrophe  ; 
and,  in  the  phiral,  when  the  nominative  ends  in  s,  by  adding  an 
apostrophe  only  :  as,  &6>j/,  hoy^s.^  hoys'. 

I  DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  noun  is  a  regular  arrange^ 
ment  of  its  numbers  and  cases.    Thus  : — 


EXAMPLE   I.— 

-FRIEND. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Kom. 

friend, 

ISTom. 

friends, 

Poss. 

friend's, 

Poss. 

friends^ 

Obj. 

friend ; 

Obj. 

friends* 

EXAMPLE   11. 

— MAX. 

Nom. 

man, 

ISTom. 

men, 

Poss. 

man's, 

Poss. 

men's, 

Obj. 

man; 

Obj. 

men. 

23  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PAE/  IL 

EXAMPLE  III.— FOX. 

Kom.       fox,  Norn.  foxes, 

Poss.        fox's,  Poss.  foxes', 

Obj.  fox;  Obj.  foxes. 

EXAMPLE   IV. — FLY. 

ISTom.       fly,  ISTom.  flies. 

Poss.        fly's,  Poss.  flies', 

Obj.  fly;  Obj.  flies. 


ANALYSIS. 


Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  tlie  parts 
wliich  compose  it. 

Every  sentence  nmst  contain  at  least  two  principal 
parts  ;   namely,  the  subject  and  \hQ  predicate. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  that  of  which  it  treats  ;  as, 
"  The  sun  has  set."' — "  Can  you  write  ?" 

The  predicate  is  that  which  expresses  the  action,  be- 
ing, or  passion,  as  belonging  to  the  subject.  It  is 
therefore  always  a  verb. 

Any  combination  of  the  subject  and  predicate  is  called 
a  proposition. 

A  simple  sentence  is  one  that  contains  only  one  propo- 
sition; as,    "Fire  burns." — "  The  truth  will  prevaih" 

A  simple  sentence  may  be  declarative^  interrogative^ 
imperative^  or  exclamatory. 

It  is  declarative  when  it  expresses  an  aifirmation  or 
negation ;  interrogative^  when  it  expresses  a  question  ; 
hnperative^  Avhen  it  expresses  a  command ;  and  exclama- 
tory, when  it  expresses  an  exclamation. 

Obs. — In  analyzing  simple  sentences,  the  subject  and  predicate 
should  be  found  first,  and  then  the  object^  if  the  sentence  contala 
one.  The  object  is  defined  in  Obs.  4.  on  the  preceding  page.  The 
Bubject,  in  imperative  sentences,  is  not  expressed,  but  must  be  sup- 
plied in  analysis.     It  is  thou  or  you,  (understood.) 

EXERCISES.— AN'ALYSIS  AXD  PARSING. 

Exercise  J. — Analyze  each  of  the  following  sentences  by  pointing  out 
the  subject,  the  predicate,  and  the  object  (if  there  l&  <^^y),  «^^ 


vy    - 
CHAP.  IV.]  ETYMOLOGY. — ADJECTIVES.  29 

.    state  ichetlier  it  is  declarative^  interrogative^  imperative,  or  ex- 
clamatory. 

Example. — "  Contentment  brings  happiness." 

Tliis  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  contentment;  the  predicates 
bi'ings;  the  object,  happinens. 

Crimes  deserve  punishment.  Robbers  are  imprisoned.  Generos- 
ity makes  friends.  Vice  brings  misery.  Does  William  study  gram- 
mar? Can  he  speak  French?  Love  truth.  Justice  will  prevaih 
Perseverance  overcomes  obstacles.  Honor  merit.  Can  you  avoid 
errors?  Matilda  possesses  beauty.  Despise  meanness.  Jane  has 
friends.  Vanity  excites  disgust.  Plants  produce  flowers.  Can 
indolence  bestow  wealth  ?  Diligence  should  be  rewarded.  Could 
he  have  avoided  disgrace  ?     Will  you  give  assistance  ? 

Exercise  IT. — Parse  each  word  in  the  above  sentences  according  to 
the  following  example. 

Example. — "  Contentment  brings  happiness." 

Contentment  is  a  common  noun  ;  of  the  third  person,  because  it  is  spoken  of;  of  the 
singular  number,  because  it  denotes  only  one  ;  of  the  neuter  gender,  because 
it  is  neither  male  nor  female;  of  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  verb  brings. 

B'-ings  is  a  verb,  because  it  signifies  action. 

ffajypine^s  \&  9.  common  noun  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender, 
and  of  the  objective  case,  because  it  is  the  object  of  the  verb  brings. 


N'S^ 


CHAPTER  ly.— OF  ADJECTIYESc 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  and  generally  expresses  quality :  as,  A 
tvise  man  ;  a  7ieio  book. — You  two  are  diligent 

CLASSES, 

Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  six  classes ; 
namely,  common.^  propei^  numeral.,  ])ron()minal., 
participial.,  and  compouncL 

I.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet, 
or  adjective  denoting  quality  or  situation  ;  as, 
Good.,  lad.,  peaceful.,  warlihe — eastern.,  western^ 
vuter.,  inner, 

II.  K  proper  adjective  is  one  that  is  formed  from 
a  proper  name  ;  as,  American.,  English.,  Platonic, 


60  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR,  [PART  IL 

III,  A  numeral  adjective  is  one  that  expresses 
/a  definite  number  ;  as,  One^  two^  tliree^fowi\  etc. 
"Ss     IV.  K pro]iominal  adjective  is  a  definitive  word 
which  may  either  accompany  its  noun,  or  repre- 
sent it  understood  ;  as,  ''''All  [men]  join  to  guard 
what  each  [man]  desires  to  gain." — Pope. 

V.  A  jparticijpial  adjective  is  one  that  has  the 
form  of  a  participle,  but  difi^ers  from  it  by  reject' 
ing  the  idea  of  time ;  as.  An  amusing  story. 

VI.  A  compound  adjective  is  one  that  consists 
cf  two  or  more  words  joined  together ;  as,  Nut- 
hrown^  lauglitei^-loving^  four-footed, 

Ohs. — -Numeral  adjectives  are  of  three  kinds:  namely, 

1.  Cardinal;  as,  One,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  seven,  etc. 

2.  Ordinal;  as,  First,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh, 
etc. 

3.  MuUiplicative ;  as,  Single  or  alone,  double  or  twofold,  triple 
or  threefold,  quadruple  or  fourfold,  etc. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adjectives  have,  commonly,  no  modifications 
but  the  forms  cf  oomparison. 

Comparison  is  a  variation  of  the  adjective,  to 
express  quality  in  a^arent  degrees ;  as,  AarJ, 
liardei\  liardest. 

There  are  three  degrees  cf  comparison  ;  the 
positive.,  the  comparative.,  and  the  '^superlative. 

The  positive  degree  is  that  which  is  expressed 
by  the  adjective  in  its  simple  form ;  as,  hard^  soft^ 
good. 

The  comparative  degree  is  that  which  exceeds 
the  positive ;  as,  liarder^  softer.,  letter. 

The  superlative  degree  is  that  which  is  not  ex- 
ceeded ;  as,  liardest.,  softest.,  hest. 

Those  adjectives  whose  signification  does  not 
admit  of  difterent  degrees,  cannot  be  compared; 
as,  two^  second.,  all.,  total.,  immortal.,  infinite. 


CHAP.  IV.]  ETYMOLOGY. — ADJECTIVES.  81 

Those  adjectives  which  may  be  varied  in  sense, 
but  not  in  form,  are  compared  by  means  of  ad- 
verbs; as,  skillful,  onore  skillful,  fno6i  skillful, — 
skillful,  less  skillful,  least  skillful. 

Adjectives  are  regularly  compared,  when  the 
comparative  degree  is  expressed  by  adding  e7\ 
and  the  superlative  by  adding  est^  to  them ;  as, 

Positive.  Comparative,  Superlative. 

great,  greater,  greatest. 

*wide,  wider,  widest. 

hot,  hotter,  hottest. 

The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregu- 
larly: good^  better^  best;  had  or  ill^  worse^  worst  j 
little^  less.,  least ;  mucli.,  more.,  most ;  many.,  more., 
most ;  far.,  farther.,  farthest  /  IcUe.,  later  or  latter.^ 
latest  or  last, 

01)5.  1, — As  the  simple  form  of  the  adjective  does  not  necessarily 
imply  comparison,  and  as  many  adjectives  admit  no  other,  some 
think  it  is  not  requisite  in  parsing,  to  mention  the  degree,  unless  it 
be  the  comparative  or  the  superlative. 

Ohs.  2. — The  method  of  comparison  by  er  and  est,  is  chiefly  ap- 
plicable to  monosyllables,  and  to  dissyllables  ending  in  y  or  mute  e« 

Ols.  3. — The  ditferent  degrees  of  a  quality  may  also  be  expressed, 
"with  precisely  the  same  import,  by  prefixing  to  the  adjective,  the 
adverbs  more  and  most:  as,  wise.,  more  wise.,  most  wise ;  famous^ 
more  famous^  most  famous;  amiable.,  more  amiable.,  most  amiable. 

Obs.  4, — Diminution  of  quality  is  expressed,  in  like  manner,  by 
the  adverbs  ^^s^  and  least:  as,  wise^  less  wise,  least  wise;  jfamouSy 
less  famous.,  least  famous. 

Obs.  5. — The  prefixing  of  an  adverb  can  hardly  be  called  a  vari- 
ation of  the  adjective.  The  words  may  with  more  propriety  be 
parsed  separately,  the  degree  being  ascribed  to  the  adverb,  or  to 
each  word. 

Obs.  6. — Most  adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable,  must  be  com- 
pared by  means  of  the  adverbs ;  because  they  do  not  admit  a 
change  of  termination:  thus,  we  may  say,  virtuous.,  more  virtuous, 
most  virtuous;  but  not  virtuous,  virtuouser,  virtuousest. 

Obs.  7. — Common  adjectives  are  more  numerous  than  all  the 
other  adjectives  put  together.  Very  many  of  these,  and  a  few  pro- 
nominals  and  participials,  may  be  compared ;  but  adjectives  formed 
from  proper  names,  all  the  nu..  erals,  and  most  of  the  compounds, 
are  in  no  way  susceptible  of  co"  parison. 

*  See  Kules  for  -  ^'ellmg,  III  aud  VL 


32  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE.  [PART  IL 

Ohs.  8. — Nouns  are  often  used  as  adjectives ;  as,  An  iron  bar— 
An  evening  school — Kmahogany  chair— A  South- Sea diVQQm.  These 
also  are  incapable  of  comparison. 

Obs.  9. — The  numerals  are  often  used  as  nouns ;  and,  as  such,  are 
regularly  declined:  as.  Such  a  one — One's  own  self— The  little  ones 
■ — By  tens — For  twenty''s  sake. 

Ohs.  10.— Comparatives,  and  the  word  other^  are  sometimes  also 
employed  as  nouns,  and  have  the  regular  declension  ;  as,  Our  svpe- 
riors — His  betters — The  elder'' s  advice — An*  other's yvoQ — Let  other* 
do  as  they  will.     But,  as  adjectives,  these  words  are  invariable. 

Obs.  11.— Pronominal  adjectives,  when  their  nouns  are  expressed, 
simply  relate  to  them,  and  have  no  modifications ;  except  this  and 
ihat^  which  form  the  plural  these ajid  those;  and  much^  inany^  and 
a  few  others,  which  are  compared. 

Obs.  12.— Pronominal  adjectives,  when  their  nouns  are  not  ex- 
pressed, may  be  parsed  as  representing  them  in  person^  number^ 
gender.,  and  case. 

Obs.  13. — The  following  are  the  principal  pronominal  adjectives: 
All.,  any.,  both.,  each.,  either.,  every.,  few.,  former.,  first.,  latter.,  lasty 
many.,  neither.,  none.,  one.,  other.,  same.,  some.,  such.,  this.,  that.,  whichy 
what.  Which  and  ichat.,  when  they  are  not  prefixed  to  nouns,  are, 
for  the  most  part,  relative  or  interrogative  pronouns. 


ANALYSIS. 


Words,  added  to  either  of  the  principal  parts 
of  a  sentence  to  modify  or  limit  its  meaning,  are 
called  adjuncts. 

Primary  adjuncts  are  tlicse  added  directly  to 
either  of  the  principal  parts ;  as,  "  Good  books 
always  deserve  a  careful  perusal." 

Secondary  adjuncts  are  those  added  to  other 
adjuncts;  as,  ''Suddenly  acquired  wealth  very 
rarely  brings  happiness." 

Adjuncts  are  sometimes  called  modifications. 

Obs.  1. — The  subject  or  the  object  may  be  modified  by  different 
parts  of  speech ;  as,  1.  By  an  article  or  adjective;  as,  "  The  diligent 

*  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  joining  n7i  and  other.  An  here  excludes 
any  other  article ;  and  analojiy  and  consistency  require  that  the  words  be  sc[)arated. 
Their  union  has  led  sometitnes  to  an  improper  repetitioa  of  the  article  ;  as,  '■'■AJioth^i' 
such  a  man,'" — for,  "An  other  such  man." 


CHAP,  v.]  ETYMOLOGY. — PEOXOUXS.  33 

scholar  improves."  2.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive 
case ;  as,  '^  WilUcuii's  sister  has  lost  her  book."  3.  By  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  used  merely  for  explanation ;  as,  "  His  brother,  Charles^  is 
idle,"  4.  By  a  preposition  and  its  object,  used  as  an  adjective;  as, 
"The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  Gociy  5.  By  a  verb;  as,  "Tho 
desire  to  excel  is  laudable." 

Obs.  2. — The  predicate  may  be  modified,  1.  By  an  adverl)  ;  as, 
"The  sun  shines  hriglUlyy  2.  By  a  'pre'poution  and  its  object,  used 
as  an  adverb;  as,  "  He  came^ro^i  Boston. 

Obs.  3. — The  modifications  enumerated  are  those  of  the  simplest 
form.     Others  are  mentioned  and  described  as  the  pupil  proceeds. 

Exercise. — Analyze  each  sentence.^  pointing  out  first^  the  subject.^  the 
predicate.,  and  the  object.^  and  secondly^  the  adjuncts  of  each;  pars& 
each  word. 

Example.     "  The  good  scholar  attentively  studies  his  lessons." 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

1.  The  subject  is  scholar ;  the  predicate,  studies;  the  object,  lessons. 

2.  The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  the  and  good ;  the  adjunct  of  the  predicate 

\&  attentively  ;  the  adjunct  of  the  object  is /as. 

Many  severe  afflictions  overtook  that  unfortunate  man.  He 
suddenly  lost  all  his  property.  Every  person  highly  praised  "Wil- 
liam's noble  conduct.  Ctesar  fought  many  great  battles.  William 
has  carelessly  torn  John's  beautiful  new  book.  The  Athenian3 
carefully  observed  Solon's  wise  laws.  The  queen  has  wisely  pro- 
claimed a  general  peace,  John  yesterday  found  Sarah's  new  book. 
That  ferocious  dog  has  severely  bitten  Charles's  right  arm.  "When 
will  his  brother  return  ?  Where  did  your  kind  father  buy  that 
interesting  book  ?  Always  cheerfully  obey  your  parents.  ISTever 
neglect  the  smallest  duty.  This  benevolent  young  lady  kindly 
teaches  many  poor  children.  Twelve  pence  make  one  shilling. 
The  English  Reader  was  formerly  much  used.  John  has  bought 
two  entertaining  books.  The  Prussian  ambassador  has  presented 
his  credentials.  His  brother  attends  the  Lutheran  church.  Both 
these  bad  boys  deserve  severe  punishment.  The  traveller  related 
many  amusing  incidents.  This  merchant  has  just  returned  from 
Europe.  In  winter,  the  snow  covers  the  ground.  The  love  of 
truth  should  be  carefully  cultivated.  All  the  objects  of  nature  de- 
serve dihgent  study.     Grammar  teaches  the  right  use  of  language. 


V 

CHAPTER  Y.— OF  PRON'OUXS.    ^ 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun : 
as,  The  boy  loves  his  book ;  lie  has  long  lessons, 
•ard  he  learns  them  w^ell. 


84  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  II, 

Obs.  1. — The  word  for  which  a  pronoun  stands,  is  called  its  an- 
tecedent^ because  it  usually  precedes  the  pronoun. 

Ohs.  2. — Pronouns  often  stand  for  persons  or  things  not  named  ; 
the  antecedent  being  understood. 

Obs.  3. — A  pronoun  with  which  a  question  is  asked,  stands  for 
some  person  or  thing  unknown  to  the  speaker,  and  may  bo  said 
to  have  no  antecedent ;  as,  "  Wliat  lies  there  ?"  Ans.  ^'  A  man 
asleep." 

Obs.  4. — One  pronoun  may  stand  as  the  immediate  antecedent  to 
an  other;  as,  "Blessed  are  they  that  mourn." 

CLASSES. 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes ;  ^er- 
wnalj  relative  J  and  interrogative. 

I.  A  ijersonal pronoun^  is  a  pronoun  tliat  shows 
by  its  form  of  what  person  it  is. 

The  simjijle  personal  pronouns  are  five :  namely, 
I^  of  the  iirst  person  ;  thou.,  of  the  second  person ; 
lie.,  site.,  and  it.,  of  the  third  person. 

The  comj)ound  personal  pronouns  are  also  five : 
namely,  myself^  of  the  first  person  ;  thyself.,  of  the 
second  ])erson ;  liimself.,  herself.,  and  itself.,  of  the 
third  person. 

II.  A  relative  ])ronoun^  is  a  pronoun  that  re]> 
resents  an  antecedent  word  or  phrase,  and  con- 
nects different  clauses  of  a  sentence. 

The  relative  pronouns  are,  who.,  %chic\  what^ 
and  that  /  and  the  compounds  whoever  or  whoso- 
ever^  whichever  or  whichsoever.,  whatever  or  what- 
soever. 

What  is  a  kind  of  double  relative,  equivalent 
to  that  lohicli.,  or  those  which  /  and  is  to  be  23arsed 
first  as  antecedent.,  and  then  as  relative. 

IIL  An  interrogative  ])ronoun.,  is  a  pronoun 
with  which  a  question  is  asked. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are,  who^  iohic\ 
and  what '^   being  the  same  in  form  as  relatives. 

Ohs.  1. —  Wlio  is  usually  applied  to  persons  only;  w]iic\  though 
formerly  applied  to  persons,  is  now  contined  to  animals  and  inani- 


CHAP,  v.]      ETYMOLOGY. —  PRONOUNS.  85 

mate  things;  what  (as  a  mere  pronoun)  is  applied  to  things  only; 
that  is  ai)plied  inditferently  to  persons,  animals,  or  things. 

Obs.  2. — The  pronoun  what  has  a  twofold  relation,  and  is  often 
used  (by  ellipsis  of  the  noun)  both  as  antecedent  and  relative,  being 
equivalent  to  that  ichich^  or  the  thing  tchich.  In  this  double  rela- 
tion, what  represents  two  cases  at  the  same  time ;  as,  "  He  is 
ashamed  oi  what  he  has  done  ;"  that  is,  of  that  ichich  he  has  done. 

Obs.  3. —  What  is  sometimes  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  a  rela- 
live  at  the  same  time,  and  is  placed  before  the  noun  which  it  re- 
. presents;  as,  "  What  money  we  had,  was  taken  away;"  that  is, 
All  the  money  that  we  had,  etc. — "  What  man  but  enters,  dies :" 
that  is,  Any  man  who,  etc. — "  J\liat  god  but  enters  yon  forbidden 
field," — Pope.  Indeed,  it  does  not  admit  of  being  construed  after 
a  noun,  as  a  simple  relative.  Tiie  compound  ichatever  or  whatso- 
ever has  the  same  peculiarities  of  construction ;  as,  ''  We  will  cer- 
tainly do  whatsoever  thing  goeth  fortii  out  of  our  own  mouth." — 
e/er.,  xliv,  17. 

Obs.  4. —  Who.^  whic\  and  what^  when  the  affix  ever  or  soever  \^ 
added,  have  an  unlimited  signitication  ;  and,  as  some  general  term, 
such  as  any  person  or  any  thing  is  im[)lied  in  tlie  antecedent,  they 
are  commonly  followed  by  two  terbs:  as,  "  Whoever  attends  will 
improve  ;"  that  is,  Any  person  icho  attends  will  improve. 

Obs.  5. —  That  is  a  relative  pronoun,  when  it  is  equivalent  to  who 
or  which;  as,  ''The  days  that  [which]  are  past,  are  gone  forever." 
It  is  a  definitive  or  ])ronominal  adjective,  when  it  relates  to  a  noun 
expressed  or  understood;  as,  "  That  book  is  new."  In  other  cases, 
it  is  a  conjunction  ;  as,  "  Live  well,  that  you  may  die  well." 

Obs.  6. — The  word  as,  though  usually  a  conjunction  or  an  ad- 
Terb,  has  soTnetiines  the  construction  of  a  relative  pronoun;  as, 
"  The  Lord  added  to  the  church  daily  such  [persons]  as  should  bo 
saved." — Acts.,  ii,  47. 

Obs.  7. —  Whether  was  formerly  used  as  an  interrogative  pronoun, 
refei-ring  to  one  of  two  things;  as,  "  Whether  is  greater,  the  gold 
or  the  temple?" — Matt..,  xxiii,  17. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Pronouns  Lave  the  same  modifications  as  nouns; 
namely,  Persons^  N^unihers^  Genders.,  and  Cases. 

Obs.  1. — In  the  personal  pronouns,  most  of  these  properties  are 
distinguished  by  the  words  themselves ;  in  the  relative  and  the  in- 
terrogative pronouns,  they  are  ascertained  chiefly  by  the  antecedent 
and  the  verk 

Obs.  2. — "  The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons,  are  both 
masculine  and  feminine;  that  is,  of  the  same  gender  as  the  person 
or  persons  they  represent." — Levizac.  The  speaker  and  the  hearer, 
being  present  to  each  other,  of  course  know  the  sex  to  whicii  they 
respectively  belong;  and,  whenever  they  appear  in  narrative,  w©' 
are  told  who  they  are. 

9* 


S6  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PART  IL 

Ohs.  3. — Murray  and  some  others  deny  the  first  person  of  nouns^ 
and  the  p;ender  of  pronouns  of  the  Jirst  and  second  persons;  and  at 
tJie  same  time  leach,  that,  "  Pronouns  must  agree  with  their  nouns, 
iu person^  number,  and  gender^  Now,  no  two  words  can  agree  iu 
i*ny  property  which  belongs  not  to  both ! 

DECLENSION  OF   PRONOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  pronoun  is  a  regular  ar* 
range ment  of  its  numbers  and  cases. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined  : — 

I,  of  the  FIRST  PERSON,  any  of  the  genders^ 

Sing.  Nom.  I,  Plur.  Nom.  we, 

Poss.  "my,  or  mine,  Poss,  our,  or  oiirs, 

Obj.    me;  Obj.    us. 

Thou,  of  the  second  person,  amj  of  the  genders. 

Sing.  Nom.  thou,  Plur.  Nom.  ye,  or  j^ou, 

Pos^.  thy,  or  thine,  Poss.  your,  or  yours, 

Obj.    thee;  Obj.    you. 

He,  of  the  third  person,  mascidine  gender. 

Sing.  Nom.  he,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.  his,  Poss.  their,  or  theirs. 

Obj.    him;  Obj.    theuu 

She,  of  the  third  person,  feminine  gender. 

Sing.  Nom.  she,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.  her,  or  hers,  Poss.  their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.    her;  Obj.    them. 

It,  of  the  third  person,  neuter  gender. 

Sing.  Nom.  it,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.  its,  Poss.  their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.    it;  Obj.    them. 

The  word  s^Z/"  added  to  the  personal  pronouns,  forms  a  class  of 
comjmund  personal  pronouns,  that  are  used  when  an  action  reverts 
upon  the  agent,  and  also  when  some  persons  are  to  be  distincrnishcd 
frotn  others:  as,  sin*!;,  myself,  plur.  ourselces ;  sing,  thyself,  plur. 
yourselves;  m\g.  himself ,  herself ,  itself,  \)\civ.  themselves.  They  all 
want  the  possessive  case,  and  are  alike  in  the  nominative  and  ob' 
jective- 


CHAP.  V  1  ETYMOLOGY. — ANALYSIS.  37 

The  relative  and  the  interrogative  pronouna 
are  thus  declined  : — 

Who,  applied  only  to  persons. 

Sing.  Nom.  who,  Plur.  Noni.  who, 

Poss.  Avhose,  Poss.  whose, 

Obj.    whom ;  Obj.    whom. 

Which,  applied  to  animals  and  things. 

Sing.  Nom.  which,  Plur.  ISTom.  which, 

Poss.  * Poss.  

Obj.    which  j  Obj,    which. 

What,  generally  applied  to  things. 

Sing.  ISTom.  what,  Plur.  ISTom.  what, 

Poss. •  Poss.  • • — . 

Obj.    what ;  Obj.    what. 

That,  applied  to  persons,  animals,  and  things. 

Sing  ISTom.  that,  Plus.  Worn,  that, 

Poss.  ■ Poss,  • 

Obj.    that;  Obj.    that. 

The  compound  relative  pronouns,  wJioever  or  whosoever^  wMcJi' 
ever  or  ichichsoever^  and  ichatever  or  tchatsoever^  are  declined  iu  the 
same  manner  as  the  simples,  who^  which^  what. 


ANALYSIS. 


When  simple  sentences  are  connected,  they  form  com- 
pound or  complex  sentences,  and  are  then  called  clauses. 

A  cla  ":,  therefore,  is  a  division  of  a  compound  or  a 
complex  Sentence.  Compound  or  complex  clauses  are 
sometimes  called  members. 

Clauses  may  be  connecLcd  by  conjunctions,  relative 
pronouns,  or  adverbs. 

A  clause,  used  as  an  adjunct,  or  as  one  of  the  princi- 
pal parts  of  a  sentence,  is  called  a  dependent  clause. 

*  Whose  is  sometimos  used  as  the  possessive  case  of  wliicli,  as,   "A  religion  whosd 
origin  is  divine." — Blair. 


68  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

The  clanse  on  wliich.  it  depends,  is  called  the  principal 
clause. 

A  sentence  composed  of  a  principal  and  a  dependent 
clause,  is  called  a  complex  sentence. 

When  neither  of  the  component  clauses  of  a  sentence 
is  dependent,  it  is  called  a  compound  sentence. 

A  clause,  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun,  is  often 
called  a  relative  clause;  it  may  be  dependent  or  in- 
dependent. 

Ohs. — The  sentence,  "  This  is  the  man  that  committed  the  deed," 
is  complex  ;  because  the  relative  clause  is  an  adjunct  of  man^  modi- 
fying it  like  an  adjective  ;  but  "  I  gave  the  book  to  John,  who 
has  lost  it,"  is  a  compound  sentence,  the  relative  clause  not  being 
an  adjunct,  but  expressing  an  additional  fact^  and  equivalent  to 
"  and  he  has  lost  it." 

EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

Exercise  I. — State  icliether  the  sentence  is  complex  or  compound ; 
separate  it  into  its  component  clauses ;  analyze  each  as  in  the 
previous  exercise. 

Example. — "  The  messenger  who  was  sent,  has  returned." 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence  ;  the  principal  clause  is,  Tlie  'messenger  has 
returned,  and  the  dependent  clause  is,  Who  was  sent,  an  adjunct  of  messenger ;  tlie 
connective  word  is  icho. 

The  subject  of  the  principal  clause  is,  wessew^^r;  the  predicate  is,  Aas  returned; 
the  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  the,  and  the  relative  clause,  who  was  sent;  the  predi- 
cate has  no  adjuncts.  The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause,  is  w7io,  and  the  predicate, 
was ^ent ;  neither  has  any  adjuncts. 

Jhildren  who  disobey  their  parents,  deserve  punishment.  The 
young  man  who  embezzled  his  employer's  money,  was  yesterday 
arrested.  Hatred  stirreth  up  strifes,  but  love  covereth  all  sins. 
He  that  walketh  uprightly,  walketh  surely.  Them  that  honor  me 
I  will  honor.  I  immediately  perceived  the  object  which  he  pointed 
out.  <Who  can  respect  a  man  tliat  has  lost  his  self-respect?  "Who- 
ever dreads  punishment,  suffers  it  already.  He  imprudently  reported 
what  his  friend  told  him.  You  may  purcliase  whatever  you  need. 
What  cannot  be  prevented  must  be  endured.  You  should  carefully 
avoid  rudeness,  wliich  always  excites  ill-will.  Caesar,  who  con- 
quered many  nations,  was  assassinated.  When  spring  returns,  the 
trees  resume  their  verdure.  We  alwaj^s  respect  a  man  who  scru- 
pulously observes  the  truth.  When  my  friend  returns,  I  shall  know 
all  the  facts.  Washington  was  universally  admired,  because  he 
faitlifully  served  his  country.  Every  one  despised  Benedict  Arnold, 
who  betrayed  his  country. 

Exercise  II. — Parse  each  icord  in  the  above  sentences  as  in  th^ 
pj'evious  exercise;  state  the  class  -and  modifications  of  the  prw 
nouns. 


CHAP.   VI.]  ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS.  B'O 


CHAPTER  YL— OF  VERBS. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  he^  to  act^  or 
to  he  acted  upon :  as,  I  am,  I  rule^  I  am  ruled. 

CLASSES. 

Verbs  are  divided,  witli  respect  to  theirybrm^ 
into  four  classes ;  regular^  ivrecjulai\  redundant^ 
and  defective. 

I.  A  regidar  verb  is  a  verb  tliat  forms  the  pre- 
terit and  the  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or 
ed ;  as,  love^  Joved^  loving^  loved. 

II.  An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not 
form  the  preterit  and  the  perfect  participle  by 
!iLssuming  d  or  ed;  as,  see^  saiv^  seeing^  seen. 

III.  A  rediiiidant  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  the 
preterit  or  the  perfect  participle  in  two  or  more 
ways,  and  so  as  to  be  both  regular  and  irregular ; 
as,  thrive^  thrived  or  throve^  thriving^  thrived  or 
thriven. 

IV.  A  defective  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  no 
participles,  and  is  used  in  but  few  of  the  moods 
and  tenses ;  as,  beware^  ought^  gnoth. 

Ohs. — ;Reg:iilar  verbs  form  their  preterit  and  perfect  participle  by 
adilin;;  d  to  final  ^,  and  ed  to  all  other  terminations.  The  verb 
hear^  heard^  hearing^  heard^  adds  d  to  r,  and  is  therefore  irregular. 

Verbs  are  divided  again,  with  respect  to  their 
signification^  into  four  classes;  active-transitive^ 
active-intransitive^  passive^  and  neuter. 

I.  An  active-transitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  ex- 
presses an  action  which  has  some  person  or  thing 
for  its  object;  as,  "  Cain  sleio  AbeV'' 

II.  An  active-intransitive  verb  is  a  verb  thai 
expresses  an  action  which  has  no  person  or  thing 
for  its  object;  as,  "John  ivalhs.^'' 

III.  A  passive  verb  is  a  verb  that  represents  its 


40  EIJGLISH  GRAMMAE.  [PART  IL 

subject,  or  nominative,  as  being  acted  upon;  as, 
''  I  a?n  compelled^ 

IV.  A  neuter  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses 
neither  action  nor  passion,  but  simply  being,  or  a 
state  of  being ;  as,  "  Thou  arV — "  He  sleeps^'' 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Verbs  have  modifications  of  four  kinds ;  name- 
ly, Moods^  Teiises^  Persons^  and  Numbers, 

MOODS. 

Moods  are  different  forms  of  the  verb,  each  of 
which  expresses  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  in 
some  particular  manner. 

There  are  five  moods;  the  Infinitive^  the  In- 
dicative^ the  Potential^  the  Suhjunctive^  and  the 
Imperative. 

The  Infinitive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb, 
which  expresses  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  in 
an  unlimited  manner,  and  without  person  or  num- 
ber ;  as.  To  read^  to  speah. 

The  Indicative  7nood  is  that  form  of  the  verb, 
which  simply  indicates,  or  declares  a  thing :  as,  I 
lorite ;  you  jcnow  :  or  asks  a  question ;  as.  Do  you 
knoiv  ? 

The  Potential  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb, 
which  expresses  the  power,  libei'ty,  possibility,  or 
necessity,  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion:  as,  I 
can  read  ;  we  must  go. 

The  Suhjimctwe  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb, 
which  represents  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  as 
conditional,  doubtful,  and  contingent :  as,  "  If  thou 
go^  see  that  thou  offend  not." 

The  Imperative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb^ 
which  is  used  in  commanding,  exhorting,  entreat- 
mg,  or  permitting :  as,  "  Depart  thou." — ^'  Be  com- 
fortedJ^ — "  Forgive  me." — '-^Go  in  peace." 


CHAP.  VI.]  ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS.  41 

Ols. — A  verb  in  any  other  mood  than  the  infinitive^  is  called, 
by  way  of  distinction,  o.  finite  verb. 


TENSES. 

Tenses  are  those  modifications  of  tlie  verb, 
wliicli  distinguish  time. 

There  are  six  tenses ;  the  Present^  the  Imper- 
fect^ the  Perfect^  the  Pluperfect^  the  Firstfuture^ 
and  the  Second-future. 

The  Present  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
now  exists^  or  is  taking  place :  as, ''  I  hear  a  noise ; 
somebody  is  coming.^'' 

The  Imperfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses- 
what  took  place,  or  was  occurring^  in  time  fully 
past :  as,  "  I  saw  him  yesterday  ;  he  was  walking 
out." 

The  Perfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
has  taken  j)lace,  within  some  period  of  time  not 
yet  fully  past :  as,  "  I  have  seen  him  to-day." 

The  Pluperfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses 
what  had  taken  place,  at  some  past  time  men- 
tioned: as,  "I  had  seen  him,  when  I  met  you." 

The  Firstfuture  tense  is  that  which  expresses 
what  loill  take  place  hereafter:  as,  "I  shall  see 
him  again." 

The  Secondfuture  tense  is  that  which  expresses 
what  will  have  taken  place,  at  some  future  time 
mentioned:  as,  ''I  shall  have  seen  him  by  to-mor- 
row noon." 

Ohs. — The  tenses  do  not  all  express  time  with  equal  precision. 
Those  of  the  indicative  mood  are  in  general  tlie  most  definite.  The 
time  expressed  by  the  same  tenses  (or  what  are  called  by  the  same 
names)  in  the  other  moods,  is  frequently  relative,  and  sometimes 
indefinite,  IhQ  present  infinitire  often  expresses  what  is  rehitively 
future.  The  potential  i//i]ye?'/ect  is  properly  an  aorw^.'  no  definite 
time  is  usually  implied  in  it.  The  subjunctive  imperfect  is  also  an 
aorist,  or  indefinite  tense :  it  may  refer  to  time  past,  present,  or 
future. 


42  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  IL 

PERSONS  AND   NUMBERS. 

The  Person  and  J^umber  of  a  verh  are  those 
modifications  in  which  it  agrees  with  its  subject 
or  nominative. 

In  each  number,  there  are  three  persons ;  and 
in  each  person,  two  numbers  :  thus, — 

■'  Singular.  Plural. 

1st  per.  I         love,  1st  per.  We    love, 

2d  per.  Thou  lovest,  2d  per.  You    love, 

8d  per.  He      loves;  8d  per.  Thej  love. 

Ohs.  1. — Tims  the  verb,  in  some  of  its  parts,  varies  its  termina- 
tion to  distinguish,  or  agree  with,  the  different  persons  and  num- 
bers. The  change  is,  however,  principally  confined  to  tl.e  second 
and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present  tense  of  the  indicative 
mood,  and  to  the  auxiliaries  hast  and  has  of  the  perfect.  In  the 
ancient  biblical  style,  now  used  only  on  solemn  occasions,  the  second 
person  singular  is  distinguished  through  all  the  tenses  of  tlie  indic- 
ative and  potential  moods.  In  the  plural  number,  there  is  no  vari- 
ation of  ending,  to  denote  the  dilFerent  persons,  and  the  verb  in  the 
three  persons  plural, »is  the  same  as  in  the  first  person  singular. — 
See  Inst,  of  E.  Grani.^  p.  55,  et  seq. 

Ohs.  2. — The  second  person  singular  is  regularly  formed  by  add- 
ing st  or  est  to  the  first  person  ;  and  the  third  person,  in  like  man- 
ner, by  adding  s  or  es :  as,  I  see,  thou  seest.,  he  sees ;  I  give.^t\\o\x 
givest,  he  gives ;  I  go,  thou  goest^  lie  goes  ;  I  fly.,  thou  fliest,  he  flies; 
1  ve.i\  thou  vexest,  lie  Texes ;  I  lose,  thou  losest,  he  loses. 

Ohs.  3. — The  tliird  person  singular  was  anciently  formed  in  th  or 
eih  ;  but  this  termination  is  now  confined  to  the  solemn  style. 

Obs.  4. — The  only  regular  terminations  that  are  added  to  verbs, 
are  ing,  d  or  ed,  st  or  est,  s  or  es,  th  or  eth.  Jng,  and  th  or  eth, 
always  add  a  syllable  to  the  verb,  except  in  doth,  hatii,  saith. 
The  rest,  whenever  their  sound  will  unite  with  that  of  the  final 
syllable  of  the  verb,  are  added  without  increasing  the  nucnber  of 
syllables;  otherwise,  they  are  separately  pronounced.  In  solemn 
discourse,  however,  ed  and  est  are,  by  most  speakers,  uttered  dis- 
tinctly in  all  cases:  except  some  few  in  which  a  vowel  precedes; 
as  in  glorifl^d. 

CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  a  regular  arrange- 
ment of  its  moods,  tenses,  persons,  numbers,  and 
participles. 

There  are  four  Principal  Parts  in  the  conju- 
gation of  every  simple  and  complete  verb  ;  name- 


CHAP,  yi.]  ETYMOLOGY. —  VERBS  43 

ly,  the  Present^  fhe  Preterit^  the  Imperfect  Par- 
ticiple^ and  the  Perfect  Participle.  A  verb  which 
wants  any  of  these  parts,  is  called  defective. 

An  auxiliary  is  a  short  verb  prefixed  to  one 
of  the  principal  parts  of  an  other  verb,  to  express 
some  particular  mode  and  time  of  the  being,  ac- 
tion, or  passion.  The  auxiliaries  are  do.,  he.,  liave., 
^Iiall.,  ivill^  may.,  can^  and  must^  with  their  varia- 
tions. 

Ola. — Some  of  these,  especially  do^  he,  and  liave^  are  also  used  as 
principal  verbs. 

Verbs  are  conjugated  in  the  following  manner: 

I.    SIMPLE   FOnM,    ACTIVE   OR  NEUTER. 

The  simplest  form  of  an  English  conjugation, 
is  that  which  makes  the  present  and  imperfect 
tenses  without  auxiliaries  ;  but  even  in  these,  aux- 
iliaries are  required  for  the  potential  mood,  and 
are  often  preferred  for  the  indicative, 

FIRST   EXAMPLE. 

Conjugation  of  the  regular  active  verb 

LOVE. 

Principal  Parts, 
Present.         Preterit.      Imperfect  Participle.       Perfect  Participle 

Love.        Loved.  Loving.  Loved. 

INFINITIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  To  love. 

Perfect  Tense.  To  have  loved.  * 

INDICATIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  The  simple  form  of  the  present  tense  is  varied 
thus : — 


44  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR.  [PART  IL 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  per.  I         love,  1st  per.  We    love. 

2d  per.  Thou  lovest,  2d  per.  You   love. 

Sd  per.  He      loves ;  8d  per.  They  love. 

2.  This  tense  may  also  be  forraed  by  prefixing  the 
auxiliary  do  to  the  verb ;  thus, — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         do    love,  1.  "We     do  love, 

2.  Thou  dost  love,  2.  You   do  love, 
S.  He     does  love ;  3.  They  do  love. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  in  its  simple  form,  is  the  preterit.  In  all 
regular  verbs,  it  adds  d  or  ed  to  the  present,  but  in  others 
it  is  formed  variously. 

1.  The  simple  form  of  the  imperfect  tense  is  varied 
thus  : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         loved,  1.  "We     loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  2.  You    loved, 
8.  He      loved ;  8.  They  loved. 

2.  This  tense  may  also  be  formed  by  prefixing  the 
auxiliary  did  to  the  present :  thus, — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         did     love,  1.  We     did  love, 

■   2.  Thou  didst  love,  2.  You   did  love, 

8.  He      did     love;  8.  They  did  love. 

Perfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  have  to  the  perfect 
participle :  thus, — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  loved,  1.  We    have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved,  2.  You   have  loved, 
8.  He      has    loved ;  3.  They  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  had  to  the  perfect 
participle;  thus, — 


CHAP.  VI.]  ETYMOLOGY. —  VERBS.  45 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         had    loved,  1.  We     had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  2.  You   had  loved, 
8.  He      had    loved;  8.  They  had  loved. 

First-future  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  shall  or  will  to  the 
present :  thus, — 

1..  Simply  to  express  a  future  action  or  event : 

Singvlar.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  love.  1,  "We     shall  love, 

2.  Thou  wilt  love,  2.  You    will   love, 
8.  He      will  love ;  8.  They  will  love. 

2.  To  express  a  promise,  vohtion,  command,  or  threat : 
Singidar.  Plural. 

1.  I         will   love,  1.  "We     will   love, 

2.  Thou  sbalt  love,  2.  You   shall  love, 
8.  He      shall  love ;  8.  They  shall  love. 

Second-future  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries  shall  have  or  will 
have  to  the  perfect  participle  :  thus, — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  have  loved,  1.  We     shall  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved,  2.  You   will   have  loved, 
8.  He      Avill   have  loved ;  8.  They  will   have  loved. 

POTENTIAL      MOOD.  4^ 

Present  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  may,  can,  or  mustj  to 
the  radical  verb  :  thus, — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     love,  1.  "We     may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  2.  You   may  love, 
8.  He       may     love ;  8.  They  may  love. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  might,  could,  would^ 
or  should,  to  the  radical  verb :  thus, — 


46  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  IL 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might     love,  1    "We     might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love,  2.  You   might  love, 

3.  He      might     love ;  3,  Thej  might  love. 

Perfect  Tense. 
This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries  may  have,  can  Jiave^ 
or  must  have,  to  the  perfect  participle  :  thus, — 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     have  loved,       1.  We    may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  may  St  have  loved,       2.  You  may  have  loved, 
8.  He      may     have  loved ;      8.  They  may  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries  might  have,  could 
have,  would  have,  or  should  have^  to  the  perfect  partici- 
ple :  thus, — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might    have  loved,    1.  We    might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved,    2.  You   might  have  loved, 

3.  He     might    have  loved;   8.  They  might  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
This  tense  is  generally  used  to  express  some  condition 
on  which  a  future  action  or  event  is  affirmed,  and  is 
therefore  considered  by  some  grammarians  as  an  ellipti- 
cal form  of  the  future. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        love,  1.  If  we    love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  2.  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he      love,  8.  If  they  love. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
This  tense,  as  well  as  the  imperfect  of  the  potential 
mood,  with  which  it  is  frequently  connected,  is  properly 
an  aorist,  or  indefinite  tense,  and  may  refer  to  time  past^ 
present,  or  future. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        loved,  1.  If  we    loved, 

2.  If  thou  loved,  2.  If  you  loved, 
8.  If  he      loved;  3.  If  they  loved. 


CHAP.   VI.]  ETYMOLOGY. —  VERBS.  4:7 

IMPERATIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  Love  [thou J  07^  Do  tliou  love. 
Plural,       2.  Love  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  love, 

P  ARTIC  IPLES. 

1.  Tlie  Imperfect y  Loving. 

2.  The  Perfect,  Loved, 

3.  TJie  Preperfect,  Having  loved. 


-&!/<'  y  JkJL^  Af 


SYI^OPSIS  OF  THE  FIEST  EXAMPLE. 

First  Person  Singular. 

Ind.  I  love,  I  loved,  I  have  loved,  I  had  loved,  I  shall  love,  I  shall 
have  loved.  Pot.  I  may  love,  I  might  love,  I  may  have  loved,  \ 
might  have  loved.     Subj.  It  I  love,  If  I  loved. 

Second  Person  Singular."* 

Ind.  Thou  lovest,  Thou  lovedst.  Thou  hast  loved,  Thou  hadst 
loved.  Thou  wilt  love,  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  Pot.  Thou  mayst 
love,  TJiou  mightst  love,  Thou  mayst  have  loved,  Thou  mightst 
have  loved.  Subj.  If  thou  love,  If  thou  loved.  Imp.  Love  [thou], 
or  Do  thou  love. 

*  In  the  familiar  use  of  the  second  person  singular,  as  retained  by  the  Society  of 
Friend-%  the  verb  is  usually  varied  ouly  in  the  present  tense  of  the  indicative  mood, 
and  in  the  auxiliary  hast  of  the  perfect:  thus, — 

Ind.  Thou  lovest,  Thou  loved,  Thou  hast  loved.  Thou  had  loved,  Thou  will  love. 
Thou  will  have  loved.  Pot.  Thou  may  love.  Thou  might  love.  Thou  may  have  loved, 
Thou  might  have  loved.  Subj.  If  thou  love,  If  thou  loVed.  Imp.  Love  [thou],  or  Do 
thou  love. 

To  avoid  an  unnecessary  increase  of  syllables,  the  formation  of  (he  second  person 
singular  of  the  present  tense,  is  also  ir  ome  degi'ee  eimplitied,  and  rendered  closely 
analogous  to  that  of  the  third  person  singular ;  at  or  ent  being  added  for  the  former 
exactly  as  s  or  en  is  added  for  the  latter:  as,  1  know,  thou  knowist,  he  /.nows ;  I  read, 
thoureadnt,  he  reads ;  I  take,  thou  ta/,€«t,he  takes;  1  bid,  ihou  bidst,  he  lids;  I 
pity,  thon  pitietit,  he.  pities.  Thus  there  is  no  Increase  of  syllables,  when  the  verb 
ends  with  a  sound  which  will  unite  with  that  of  the  letters  added. — See  Jnat.  ef  E. 
Gram.,  p.  56. 

This  method  of  forming  the  verb  accords  with  the  practice  of  the  most  intelligent 
of  those  who  retain  the  common  use  of  this  distinctive  and  consistent  mode  of  address. 
It  disencumbers  their  familiar  dialect  of  a  multitude  of  harsh  and  useless  terminations, 
which  serve  only,  when  uttered,  to  give  an  uncouth  prominency  to  words  not  often 
emphatic,  and,  without  impairing  the  strength  or  perspicuity  of  the  language,  in- 
creases its  harmony,  and  reduces  the  form  of  the  verb,  in  the  second  person  singular, 
nearly  to  the  same  simplicity  as  in  the  other  persons  and  numbers.  This  simplifica- 
tion is  supported  by  usage  as  extensive  as  XhQ  familiar  use  of  the  pronoun  thou,  and 
is  also  in  accordance  with  the  canons  of  criticism.  "  All  words  and  phrases  which  ai  e 
remarkably  harsli  and  unharmonious,  and  not  absolutely  necessary,  should  be  rejected." 
'-CampbeWs  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  B.  11,  Oh.  ii,  Sec  2,  Canon  SisUh. 


48  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

Third  Person  Singular. 

Ind.  He  loves,  He  loved,  He  has  loved,  He  had  loved,  He  will 
love.  He  w^ill  have  loved.  Pot.  He  may  love.  He  might  love,  He 
may  have  loved,  He  might  have  loved.  Sdbj.  If  he  love,  If  ho 
loved. 

First  Person  Plural. 

IxD.  "We  love,  "We  loved,  TVe  have  loved,  "We  had  loved,  "We 
shall  love,  "We  shall  have  loved.  Pot.  "We  may  love,  "We  might 
love.  We  may  have  loved,  "We  might  have  loved.  Subj.  If  v^e  love, 
If  we  loved. 

Second  Person  Plural. 

Ind.  You  love.  You  loved,  You  have  loved.  You  had  loved.  You 
will  love.  You  will  have  loved.  Pot.  You  may  love,  You  might 
love.  You  may  have  loved.  You  might  have  loved.  Subj.  If  you 
love.  If  you  loved.     Imp.  Love  [ye  or  you],  or  Do  you  love. 

Third  Person  Plural. 

Ind.  They  love,  They  loved,  Tliey  have  loved.  They  had  loved, 
They  will  love.  They  will  have  loved.  Pot.  They  may  love,  Ti)ey 
might  love,  They  may  have  loved,  They  might  have  loved.  Subj. 
If  they  love,  If  they  loved. 


SECOND   EXAMPLE. 

.5^       Conjugation  of  the  irregular  active  verb 
I  SEE. 

Principal  Parts. 
Present.        Preterit.       Imjjerfect  Participle.     Perfect  Participle, 
See.  Saw.  Seeing.  Seen, 

infinitive    mood. 

Present  Tense.     To  see. 
Perfect  Tense.     To  have  seen. 

^        indicative    mood. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1        see,  1.  We    see, 

2.  Thou  seest,  2.  You   see, 

3.  He      sees  j  3.  Thej  see. 


CHAP.  VI.]       ETYMOLOGY. —  VERBS.  49 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         saw,  1.  We    saw, 

2.  Thou  sawest,  2.  You  saw, 
8.  He      saw  ;  8.  Thej  saw. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1,  I         have  seen,  1.  We     have  seen, 

2.  Thou  hast   seen,  2.  You   have  seen, 
8.  He     ha.s     seen ;               8.  They  have  seen. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         had     seen,  1.  We     had  seen, 

2.  Thou  hadst  seen,  2.  You    had  seen, 

8.  He      had    seen ;  8.  They  had  seen. 

First-future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         shall  see;  1.  We     shall  see, 

2.  Thou  wilt  see,  2.  You    will  see, 

8.  He      will    see ;  8.  They  will  see. 

Second-future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I         shall  have  seen,  1.  We     shall  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  wilt   have  seen,  2.  You   will  have  seen, 

3  He      will   have  seen  ;  8.  They  will  have  seen, 

POTENTIAL      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

»        1.  1         may     see,  1.  We    may  see, 

2.  Thou  mayst  see,  2.  You    may  see, 

8.  He      may     see ;  8,  They  may  see. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         might    see,  1  We     might  see, 

2.  Thou  mightst  see,  2,  You    might  see, 

3.  He      might     see ;         8.  They  might  see. 


50  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PART  IL 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may    have  seen,  1.  We     may  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  seen,  2.  You  may  have  seen, 
8.  He      may     have  seen  ;            8.  They  may  have  seen. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1, 1  might  have  seen,  1.  We  might  have  seen, 
2.  Thou  mightst  have  seen,  2.  You  might  have  seen, 
8.  He      might    have  seen  ;       8.  They  might  have  seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        see,  1.  If  we    see, 

2.  If  thou  see,  2.  If  you  see, 
8.  If  he      see ;                       8.  If  they  see. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I       saw,  1.  If  we    saw, 

2.  If  thou  saw,  2.  If  you  saw, 
8.  If  he      saw ;                      8.  If  they  saw. 

IMPERATIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  See  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  see. 
Plural.      2.  See  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  see. 

PARTICIPLES. 

I,  The  Imperfect.  2.  The  Perfect.  3.  The  Preperfect, 

Seeing.  Seen.  Having  seen. 

THIRD   EXAMPLE. 

Conjugation  of  the  irregular  neuter  verb 
BE. 

Principal  Parts. 

Pivsent.        Preterit,       Jm2)erfect  Participle.     Perfect  Participle. 
Be.  Was.  Being.  Been. 


CHAP.  VI.]  ETYMOLOGY. —  VERBS.  51 

INFINITIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense,     To  be. 
Perfect  Tense.     To  have  been, 

INDICATIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         am,  1.  We    are, 

2,  Thou  art,  2.  You  are, 

8.  He      is ;  8.  They  are. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         was,    ■  1.  We     were, 

2.  Thou  wast,*  2.  You   were, 

8.  He      was ;  8.  Thej  were. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         have  been,  1.  We    have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been,  2.  You   have  been, 

3.  He      has    been ;  8.  They  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         had    been,  1.  We    had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been,  2.  You   had  been, 

3.  He      had    been ;  8.  They  had  been. 

First-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         shall  be,  1.  We    shall  be,       '' 

2.  Thou  wilt  be,  2.  You   will   be, 

8.  He      will  be ;  8.  They  will   be. 

Second-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         shall  have  been,  1.  We     shall  have  been, 

2.  Thou  wilt   have  been,  2.  You   will  have  been, 

8.  He      will    have  been ;  8.  They  will  have  been. 

*  Wert  is  sometimes  used  indicatively  for  toast;  as,  "Vainly  wert  thou  wed."-« 
JByron.    *  Whate'er  thou  art  or  werV^ — Id. 


62  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK.  [PART  II. 

POTENTIAL      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may    be,  1.  We    may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be,  2.  You   may  be, 

3.  He      may    be ;  8.  They  may  be. 

hnperfect  Tense. 

Singvlar.  '  PUral. 

1,  I         might    be,  1.  We     might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be,  2.  You    might  be, 
8.  He      might     be ;  3.  They  might  be. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         may     have  been,  1.  We     may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,  2.  You    may  have  been, 

8.  He      may     have  been ;  8.  They  may  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1  might  have  been,  1,  We  might  have  been, 
2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,  2.  You  might  have  been, 
8.  He      might     have  been ;      3.  They  might  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Ifl       be,  1.  Ifwe    be, 

2.  If  thou  be,  2.  If  you  be, 

3.  If  he     be;  3.  If  they  be. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I       were,  1.  Ifwe    were, 

2.  If  thou  wert,  or  were,       2.  If  you  were, 

3.  Khe     were;  3.  If  they  were. 

IMPERATIVE      MOOD 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  Be  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  be. 
Plural.     2.  Be  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  be. 


CHAP.  VI.]  ETYMOLOGY  — VERBS.  53 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Imperfect.  2.  The  Perfect.  3.  The  PreperfecU 

Being.  Been.  Having  been. 

II.   COMPOUND  FORM,   ACTIVE  OR  NEUTER. 

Active  and  neuter  verbs  may  also  be  conju- 
gated, by  adding  the  Imperfect  Participle  to  the 
auxiliary  verb  be,  through  all  its  changes ;  as,  I 
am  writing  ;  He  is  sitting.  This  compound  form 
of  conjugation  denotes  a  continuance  oi  t\i%  action 
or  state  of  being,  and  is,  on  many  occasions,  pre- 
ferable to  the  simple  form  of  the  verb. 

FOURTH   EXAMPLE. 

Compound  form  of  the  irregular  active  verb 

EEAD. 

Principal  parts  of  the  simple  verb. 
Present.        Preterit.      Imperfect  Participle.      Perfect  Participlet. 
Bead.         Eead^  Beading.  Read. 

INFINITIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense,     To  be  reading. 
Perfect  Tense.     To  have  been  reading. 

INDICATIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         am  reading,  1.  We     are  reading, 

2.  Thou  art  reading,  2.  You   are  reading^ 
8.  He      is    reading  j         3.  They  are  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         was   reading,  1.  We     were  reading, 

2.  Thou  wast  readino^,  2.  You    were  read  in  or 

TT  1 

o.  He      was   reading ;  3.  They  were  reading. 


54  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  IL 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular,  Plural. 

1. 1  have  been  reading,  1,  "We  have  been  reading, 
2-  Thou  hast  been  reading,  2.  You  have  been  reading, 
8.  He      has    been  reading ;  3.  They  have  been  reading. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         had    been  reading,     1.  "We     had  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  reading,     2.  You   had  been  reading, 

3.  He      had     been  reading ;    8.  They  had  been  reading. 

First-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  be  reading,  1.  "We     shall  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  reading,  2.  You  will  be  reading, 
8.  He      will   be  reading ;  8.  They  will   be  readings 

Second-future  Tense. 

Singular.  1.  I  shall  have  been  reading, 
2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  reading, 
8.  He      will  have  been  reading ; 

Plural.  1.  We  shall  have  been  reading, 
2.  You  will  have  been  reading, 
8.  They  will  have  been  reading. 

POTENTIAL       MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1. 1         may    be  reading,  1.  We     may  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  reading,  2.  You   may  be  reading, 

^.  He      may     be  reading  ;         8.  They  may  be  reading. 

Imjperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  be  reading,  1.  We  might  be  reading, 
2»  Thou  mightst  be  reading,  2.  You  might  be  reading, 
8.  He      might     be  reading ;    3.  They  might  be  reading. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I  may     have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  reading, 
8.  Hg      may     have  been  reading ; 


CHAP.  VI.]  ETYMOLOGY. —  VERBS.  55 

Plural,  1.  We  may  have  been  reading, 
2.  Yoa  may  have  been  reading, 
8.  They  may  have  been  reading. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  1.  I  might  have  been  reading, 
2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  reading, 
8.  He      might     have  been  reading; 

Plural,  1.  We  might  have  been  reading, 
2.  You  might  have  been  reading, 
8.  They  might  have  been  reading. 

SUBJUNCTIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        be  reading,  1.  If  we    be  reading; 

2.  If  thou  be  reading,  2.  If  you  be  reading, 
8.  If  he      be  reading  ;  8.  If  they  be  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Flural. 

1.  If  I        were  reading,  1.  Fwe    were  reading, 

2.  If  thou  wert  reading,  2.  If  you  were  readmg, 
8.  If  iie     were  reading ;               8.  If  they  were  reading, 

IMPERATIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Sing.  2.  Be  [thou]  reading,  or  Do  thou  be  reading. 
Plur.  2.  Be  [ye  or  you]  reading,  or  Do  you  be  reading, 

PARTICIPLES, 

1.  The  Imperfect.          2.  The  Perfect.  3.  The  Preperfect. 

Being  reading. Having  been  reading. 

III.    FORM   OF   PASSIVE   VERBS. 

Passive  verbs,  in  English,  are  always  of  a  com- 
pound form.  They  are  formed  from  active-trans- 
itive verbs,  by  adding  the  Perfect  Participle  to 
the  auxiliary  verb  be,  through  all  its  changes : 
thus,  from  the  active-transitive  verb  love^  is  formed 
the  passive  verb  he  loved. 

Olis. — In  the  compound  forms  of  conjugation,  tlie  imperfect  par^ 
ticiple  is  sometimes  taken  in  a  passive  sense  :  as,  "  Tiie  goods  am 


56  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

selling ;  The  ships  are  Imilding  .''^  and  the  perfect  participle  of  an 
active-intransitive  verb,  may  have  a  neuter  signification  as,  '^I 
am  come ;  He  is  risen ;  They  are  fallen.''''  The  former  are  passive^ 
and  the  latter,  neuter  verhs. 

FIFTH  EXAMPLE. 

Conjugation  of  the  regular  passive  verb 

BE  LOVED. 

Principal  Parts  of  the  active  verb. 

Present.         Preterit.      Imperfect  Participle.      Perfect  Participle, 

Love.         Loved  Loving.  Loved. 

INFINITIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  To  be  loved, 

Perfect  Tense.  To  liave  been  loved, 

INDICATIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         am  loved,  1,  AVe     are  loved, 

2.  Thou  art  loved,  2.  You   are  loved, 
8.  He      is     Icved,  8.  They  are  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         was  loved,  1.  We     were  loved, 

2.  Thou  wast  loved,  2.  You   were  loved, 
8.  He      was   loved ;  8.  They  were  loved. 

Perfect  Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  been  loved,  1.  "We     have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved,  2.  You  have  been  loved, 
8.  He      has     been  loved ;        8.  They  have  been  lovecL 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

•L  I         had    been  loved,  1.  We     had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadstbeen  loved,  2.  You   had  been  loved, 

8.  He      had     been  loved  ;  8.  They  had  been  loved. 

Firstfuture  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  be  loved,  1.  Wc     shall  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  loved,  2.  You  will  be  loved, 
8.  He      will    be  loved ;  8.  They  will  be  loved 


CHAP.  VI.] 


ETYMOLOGY. —  VERBS. 


57 


Second-future  Tense. 

Singular,     lo  I  shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  loved, 
8.  He      will    have  been  loved ; 

Plural,  1.  We  shall  have  been  loved, 
2.  You  will  have  been  loved, 
8.  They  will    have  been  loved. 

POTENTIAL      MOOD 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may  be     loved,  1.  We     may  be  loved, 

2.  Tbou  mayst  be  loved,  2.  You   may  be  loved^ 
S.  He      may     be  loved  ;                8.  They  may  be  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might     be  loved,  1.  We     might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,  2.  You   might  be  loved, 
8.  He      might     be  loved ;  8.  They  might  be  loved 

,  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I  may     have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved, 
8.  He      may     have  been  loved ; 

Plural,  1.  We  may  have  been  loved, 
2.  You  may  have  been  loved, 
8.  They  may  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I  might     have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved, 
8.  He      miofht     have  been  loved: 

plural,  1.  We  might  have  been  loved, 
2.  You  mi2:ht  have  been  loved, 
8.  They  might  have  been  loved, 

SUBJUNCTIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Ifl        beloved,  1.  Ifwe    beloved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved,  2.  If  you  be  loved, . 
Z.  If  he     be  loved ,  8.  If  they  be  loved. 


58  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  II, 

Imperfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1,  If  I        were  loved,  1.  If  we    were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,  2.  If  you  were  loved, 
S,  If  lie      were  loved ;  8.  If  they  were  loved, 

IMPERATIVE      MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular,  2.  Be  [thou]  loved,  or  Do  thou  be  loved. 
Flural,      2,  Be  [ye  or  you]  loved,  or  Do  you  be  loved, 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Imperfect.  2.  The  Perfect.  8.  The  Preperfect. 

Being  loved.  Loved.  Having  been  loved. 

IT.   FORM  OF  NEGATION. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  negatively.,  by  placing  the 
adverb  not  after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary; 
but  the  infinitive  and  the  participles  take  the 
negative  first :  as, — 

Inf.  Not  to  love,  Not  to  have  loved.  Ind.  I  love  not,  or  I  do  not 
love,  I  loved  not,  or  I  did  not  love,  I  have  not  loved,  I  had  not 
loved,  I  shall  not  love,  I  sliall  not  have  loved.  Pot.  I  may,  can, 
or  must  not  love ;  I  might,  could,  would,  or  shouid  not  love ; 
I  may,  can,  or  must  not  have  loved  ;  I  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  not  have  loved.  Subj.  If  I  love  not.  If  I  loved  not.  Part. 
Not  loving.  Not  loved,  Not  having  loved. 

V.   FORM  OF   QUESTION. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively.,  in  the  in- 
dicative and  potential  moods,  by  placing  the  nom- 
inative after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary :  as, — 

Ind.  Do  I  love  ?  Did  I  love  ?  Have  I  loved  ?  Had  I  loved  ?  Shal! 
I  love?  Shall  I  have  loved?  Pot.  May,  can,  or  must  I  love? 
Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  love  '^  May,  can,  or  must  I  have 
loved  ?     Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  have  loved  ? 

VI.   FORM  OF   QUESTION  WITH  NEGATION. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively  and  neg^ 
atively^  in  the  indicative  and  potential  moods,  by 
placing  the  nominative  and  the  adverb  not  afte? 
the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary  ;  as, — 


CHAP.  VI.] 


ETYMOLOGY. —  VERBS. 


59 


Ind.  Do  I  not  love  ?  Did  I  not  love  ?  Have  I  not  loved  ?  Had  I 
not  loved?  Shall  I  not  love?  Shall  I  not  have  loved?  Pot.  May, 
can,  or  must  I  not  love?  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  not  love? 
May,  can,  oi'  must  I  not  have  loved?  Might,  could,  would,  or 
should  I  not  have  loved  ? 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

An  irregula?'  'verh  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form 
the  preterit  and  the  perfect  participle  by  assum- 
ing d  or  ed  /  as,  see^  saw^  seeing^  seen. 

Qj)s, — The  simple  irregular  verbs,  about  110  in  number,  are 
nearly  all  monosyllables.  The  following  is  a  list  of  them,  as  they 
are  now  generally  used. 


List  of  the  Irregular  Y'sipbs. 


Present. 

Arise, 

Be, 

Bear, 

Beat, 

Begin, 

Behold, 

Beset, 

Bid, 

Bind, 

Bite, 

Bleed, 

Break, 

Breed, 

Bring, 

Buy, 

Cast, 

Chide, 

Choose, 

Cleave, t 

Cling, 

Come, 

Cost, 

Cut, 

Do, 

Draw, 

Drink, 

Drive, 

Eat, 

Fall, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 


Preterit. 

Imperf.  Part. 

arose, 

arising, 

was, 

being. 

bore  or  bare, 

bearing, 

beat, 

beating, 

began  or  beguu. 

beginning. 

beheld, 

beholding, 

beset. 

besetting. 

bid  w  bade. 

bidding. 

bound. 

binding. 

bit. 

biting. 

bled. 

bleeding. 

broke. 

breaking. 

bred. 

breeding, 

brought, 
bought. 

bringing. 

buying, 

cast, 

casting. 

chid. 

chiding, 

chose, 

choosing, 

cleft  or  clove. 

cleaving. 

clung. 

clinging. 

came. 

coming, 

cost. 

costing, 

cut, 

cutting. 

did. 

doing, 

drew. 

drawing, 

drank, 

drinking, 

drove, 

driving, 

ate  or  eat. 

eating. 

fell, 

falling, 

fed. 

feeding, 

felt. 

feeling. 

fought. 

fighting, 

found, 

finding, 

fled, 

fleeing. 

flung. 

flinging. 

flew, 

flying. 

P^r-'ect  Participle. 

anseu. 

been. 

borne  c^r  born.* 

beaten  c^  ^eat. 

begun. 

beheld. 

beset. 

bidden  or  Hd» 

bound. 

bitten  or  bit. 

bled. 

broken. 

bred. 

brought, 

bought. 

cast. 

chidden  or  ch'd- 

chosen. 

cleft  or  cloven. 

clung. 

come. 

cost. 

cut. 

done. 

drawn. 

drunk  or  drank. 

driven. 

eaten  or  eat. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. 


*  Borne  sigmfiQ%  carried  ;  born  s\gv.\Q.ea  brought  forth. 

t  Cleave,  to  split,  is  irregular,  as  above ;  cleave,  to  stick,  is  regular,  but  dove  yr^ 
formerly  used  in  the  preterit,  for  cleaved. 

3* 


60 

Present. 
Forbear, 
Forsake, 
Get, 
Give, 
Go, 
Grow, 
Have, 
'Hear, 
Hide, 
Hit, 
Hold, 
Hurt, 
Keep, 
Know, 
Lead, 
Leave, 
Lend, 
Let, 

Lie,  (to  Test,) 
Lose, 
Make, 
Meet, 
Outdo, 
Put, 
Eead, 
Rend, 
Eid, 
Ride, 

Rise, 

Run, 

Say, 

See, 

Seek, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, 

Shed, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Shut, 

Shred, 

Shrink, 

Sink, 
Sit, 

bling, 

Slink, 

Smite, 

Speak, 

Spend, 

Spin, 

Spit, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stride, 

Strike, 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

PART  ] 

Preterit. 

Tmper/.  Part. 

Perfect  Participle. 

forbore, 

forbearing, 

forborne. 

forsook. 

forsaking,' 

forsaken. 

got, 

getting, 

got  or  gotten. 

gave, 

giving. 

given. 

went. 

going, 

gone. 

grew, 

growing, 

grown. 

iiad, 

having, 

had. 

heard. 

hearing. 

heard. 

hid. 

hiding. 

hidden  or  hid. 

hit. 

hitting, 

hit. 

held, 

holding. 

held  or  holdsn. 

hurt. 

hurting. 

hurt. 

kept. 

keeping. 

kept. 

knew, 

knowing, 

known. 

led. 

leading. 

led. 

left, 

leaving. 

left. 

lent. 

lending. 

lent. 

let. 

letting. 

let. 

li^y, 

h'^^g, 

lain. 

lost, 

losing, 

lost. 

made. 

making. 

made. 

met, 

meeting, 

met. 

outdid. 

outdoing. 

outdone. 

put, 
read, 

putting, 

put. 

reading. 

read. 

rent. 

rending. 

rent. 

rid, 

ridding. 

rid. 

rode. 

riding, 

ridden  or  rode. 

rung  or  rang. 

ringing, 

rung. 

rose. 

rising, 

risen. 

ran  or  run, 

running. 

run. 

said. 

saying. 

said. 

saw, 

seeing, 

seen. 

sought. 

seeking, 

sought, 
sold. 

sold, 

selling. 

sent, 

sending. 

sent. 

set. 

setting. 

set. 

shed. 

shedding. 

shed. 

shod. 

shoeing, 

shod. 

shot, 

shooting. 

shot. 

shut, 

shutting. 

shut. 

shred, 

shredding. 

shred. 

shrunk  or  shrank, 

shrinking. 

shrunk  or  shrunkea. 

suno-  or  sang, 
sunk  or  sank. 

singing, 
sinKing, 

sung, 
sunk. 

sat, 

sitting. 

sat. 

slew. 

slaying, 

slain. 

slung, 
slunk. 

slinging. 

slung. 

slinking, 

slunk. 

smote. 

smiting. 

smitten  or  smit. 

spoke, 

speaking, 

spoken. 

spent. 

spending. 

spent. 

spun. 

spinning. 

spun. 

spit  or  spat. 

spitting, 

spit  or  spltten. 

spread, 

spreading. 

spread. 

sprung  or  sprang. 

springing. 

sprung. 

stood. 

standing. 

stood. 

stole. 

stealing. 

stolen. 

stuck. 

sticking. 

stuck. 

stung, 

stinging, 
striding, 

stung. 

strode  or  strid, 

stridden  or  strid. 

struck, 

striking, 

struck  or  stricken. 

i 


CHAP.  VI.] 


ETYMOLOGY. —  VERBS. 


61 


Present. 

Preterit. 

Imperf.  Part. 

Swear, 

swore. 

■  swearing, 

Swim, 

Hwuin  or  swam. 

.    swimming, 

Swing, 

swung  or  swung. 

swinging, 

Take, 

took. 

taking, 

Teach, 

taught, 

teaching, 

Tear, 

tore, 

tearing. 

Tell, 

told. 

telling, 

Think, 

thought, 

thinking, 

Tiirust, 

thrust, 

thrusting, 

Tread, 

trod. 

treading, 

Wear, 

wore. 

wearing. 

Win, 

won, 

winning, 

Write, 

wrote, 

writing, 

Perfect  Participle. 

sworn. 

swum. 

swung. 

taken. 

taught. 

torn. 

told. 

thought. 

thrust. 

trodden  or  trod. 

worn. 

won. 

written. 


REDUNDANT   VERBS. 


A  redundant  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  tlie  pre- 
terit or  the  perfect  participle  in  two  or  more 
ways,  and  so  as  to  be  both  regular  and  irregular; 
as,  thrive^  thrived  or  throve^  thriving^  thrived  ov 
thrive7i, 

Obs. — Of  this  class  of  verbs,  there  are  about  ninety-five,  beside 
sundry  derivatives  and  compounds.  The  following  table  exhibits 
them  as  they  are  now  generally  used,  or  as  they  may  be  used  with- 
out grammatical  impropriety.  The  preferable  forms  are  placed 
tirst. 

List  of  the  Redundant  Yerbs.. 


Present. 

Preterit. 

Abide, 

abode  or  abided, 

Awake, 

awaked  or  awoke. 

Belay, 

belayed  or  belaid. 

Bend, 

bent  or  bended. 

Bereave, 

bereft  or  bereaved. 

Beseech, 

besought  or  beseeched, 

Bet, 

betted  or  bet. 

Betide, 

betided  or  betid. 

Bide, 

bode  or  bided. 

Blend, 

blended  or  blent. 

Bless, 

blessed  or  blest, 

Blow, 

blew  or  blowed, 

Build, 

built  or  builded, 

Burn, 

burned  or  burnt. 

Burst, 

burst  or  bursted, 

Catch, 

eaught  or  catched, 

Clothe, 

clothed  or  clad. 

Creep, 

crept  or  creeped. 

Crow, 

crowed  or  crew. 

Curse, 

cursed  or  curst. 

Dare, 

dared  or  durst. 

Deal, 

dealt  or  dealed, 

Dig, 

dug  f/r  digged, 

Dive, 

dived  or  dove, 

Dream, 

dreamed  or  dreamt, 

Dress, 

dressed  or  drest, 

Dwell, 

dwelt  or  dwelled. 

Freeze, 

ivQZQ  or  freezed. 

Imperf.  Part. 

abiding, 

awaking, 

belaying, 

bending, 

bereaving, 

beseeching, 

betting, 

betiding, 

biding, 

blending, 

blessing, 

blowing, 

building, 

burning, 

bursting, 

catching, 

clothing, 

creeping, 

crowing, 

cursing, 

daring, 

dealing, 

digging, 

divingV 

dreaming, 

dressing, 

dwelling, 

freezing, 


Perfect  Participle. 
abode  or  al)ided. 
awaked  or  awoke, 
belayed  or  belaid, 
bent  or  bended, 
bereft  or  bereaved, 
besought  or  beseeched. 
betted  or  bet. 
betided  or  betid, 
bode  or  bided, 
blended  or  blent, 
blessed  or  blest, 
blown  or  blowed. 
built  or  builded. 
burned  or  burnt, 
buret  or  bursted. 
eaught  or  catched.  ' 
clothed  or  clad, 
crept  or  creeped. 
crowed. 

cursed  or  curst, 
dared. 

dealt  or  dealed. 
dug  or  digged, 
dived  or  diveu. 
dreamed  or  dreamt, 
dressed  or  drest. 
dwelt  or  dwelled, 
frozen  or  freezed. 


62 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAE. 


[part  IL 


Present. 

Geld, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Hang, 

Heat, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 

Lade, 

Lean, 

Leap, 

Learn, 

Light, 

Mean, 

Mow, 

Mulct, 

Pass, 

Pay, 

Pen,  (to  coop), 

Plead, 

Prove, 

Quit, 

Eap, 

Keave, 

Eive, 

Eoast, 

Saw, 

Seethe, 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shine, 

Show, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Sow, 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spill, 

Split, 

Spoil, 

Stave, 

Stay, 

String, 

Strive, 

Straw, 

Sweat, 

Sweep, 

Swell, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Wake, 

Wax, 

Weave, 

Wed, 


Preterit. 

gelded  or  gelt, 

gilded  or  gilt, 

girded  <??•  gii't, 

graved, 

ground  or  grinded, 

hung  or  hanged, 

heated  or  het, 

heaved  or  hove, 

hewed, 

kneeled  or  knelt, 

knit  or  knitted, 

laded, 

laid  or  layed, 

leaned  or  leant, 

leaped  or  leapt, 

learned  or  learnt, 

lighted  or  lit, 

meant  or  meaned, 

mowed, 

mulcted  or  mulct, 

passed  or  past, 

paid  or  payed, 

penned  or  pent, 

pleaded  or  pled, 

proved, 

quitted  or  quit, 

rapped  or  rapt, 

reft  or  reaved, 

rived, 

roasted  or  roast, 

sawed, 

seethed  or  sod, 

shook  or  shaked, 

shaped, 

shaved, 

sheared  or  shore, 

shined  or  shone, 

showed, 

slept  or  sleeped, 

slid  or  slided, 

slitted  or  slit, 

smelled  or  smelt, 

sowed, 

sped  or  speeded, 

spelled  or  spelt, 

spilled  or  spilt, 

split  or  splitted, 

spoiled  or  spoilt, 

stove  or  staved, 

staid  or  stayed, 

strung  or  stringed, 

strived  or  strove, 

strowed, 

sweated  or  sweat, 

swept  or  sweeped, 

swelled, 

thrived  or  throve, 

threw  or  throwed, 

waked  or  woke, 

waxed, 

wove  or  weaved, 

wedded  or  wed. 


Imperf.  Part. 

gelding, 

gilding, 

girding, 

graving, 

grinding, 

hanging, 

heating, 

heaving, 

hewing, 

kneeling, 

knitting, 

lading, 

laying, 

leaning, 

leaping, 

learning, 

lighting, 

meaning, 

mowing, 

mulcting, 

passing, 

paying, 

penning, 

pleading, 

proving, 

quitting, 

rapping, 

reaving, 

riving, 

roasting, 

sawing, 

seething, 

shaking, 

shaping, 

shaving, 

shearing, 

shining, 

showing, 

sleeping, 

sliding, 

slitting, 

smelling, 

sowing, 

speeding, 

spelling, 

spilling, 

splitting, 

spoiling, 

staving, 

staying, 

stringing, 

striving, 

strewing, 

sweating, 

sweeping, 

swelling, 

thriving, 

throwing, 

waking, 

waxing, 

weaving, 

wedding, 


Perfect  Participle. 
gelded  or  gelt, 
gilded  or  gilt, 
girded  or  girt, 
graved  or  graven, 
ground  or  grinded, 
hung  or  hanged, 
heated  or  het. 
heaved  or  hoven. 
hewed  or  hewn, 
kneeled  or  knelt, 
knit  or  knitted, 
laded  or  laden, 
laid  or  layed. 
leaned  or  leant, 
leaped  or  leapt, 
learned  or  learnt, 
lighted  or  lit. 
meant  or  meaned. 
mowed  or  mown, 
mulcted  or  mulct, 
passed  or  past, 
paid  or  payed, 
penned  or  pent, 
pleaded  or  pled, 
proved  or  proven, 
quitted  or  quit, 
rapped  or  rapt, 
retl  or  reaved. 
riven  or  rived, 
roasted  or  roast, 
sawed  or  sawn, 
seethed  or  sodden, 
shaken  or  shaked. 
shaped  or  shapen. 
shaved  or  shaven, 
sheared  or  shorn, 
shined  or  shone, 
showed  or  shown, 
slept  or  sleeped. 
slidden,  slid  or  slided, 
slitted  or  slit, 
smelled  or  smelt, 
sowed  or  sown, 
sped  or  speeded, 
spelled  or  spelt, 
spilled  or  spilt, 
split  or  splitted. 
spoiled  or  spoilt, 
stove  or  staved. 
staid  or  stayed, 
strung  or  stringed, 
strived  o"  striven, 
strowed  or  strown. 
sweated  or  sweat, 
swept  or  sweeped. 
swelled  or  swollen, 
thrived  or  thriven, 
thrown  or  throwed. 
waked  or  woke, 
waxed  or  waxen, 
woven  or  weaved. 
wedded  or  wed. 


CHAP.  YII.]  ETYMOLOGY. —  PARTICIPLES. 


63 


Present. 

Weep, 

Wet, 

Whet, 

Wind, 

Wont, 

Work, 

Wring, 


Preterit, 

wepc  or  weeped, 
wet  or  wetted, 
whetted  or  whet, 
wound  or  whided, 
wont  or  wonted, 
worked  or  wrought, 
wringed  or  wrung, 


Imperf.  Part. 
weeping, 
wetting, 
whetting, 
winding, 
wonting, 
working, 
wringing. 


Perfect  Participle. 
wept  or  weeped. 
wet  or  wetted, 
whetted  or  whet, 
wound  or  winded, 
wont  or  wonted. 
W'orked  or  wrought, 
wringed  or  wrung. 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


A  defective  verh  is  a  verb  that  forms  no  parti- 
ciples, and  is  used  in  but  few  of  the  moods  and 
tenses;  as,  heicare^  ougli%  quoth. 

Ohs. — When  any  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  wanting,  the 
tenses  usually  derived  from  those  parts  are  also,  of  course,  wanting. 
All  the  auxiliaries,  except  <^o,  5e,  and  have.,  are  defective ;  but,  as 
auxiliaries,  they  become  parts  of  other  verbs,  and  do  not  need  the 
parts  which  are  technically  said  to  be  "  wanting."  The  following 
brief  catalogue  contains  all  our  defective  verbs,  except  methinks, 
with  its  preterit  methought,  which  is  not  only  defective,  but  im- 
personal, irregular,  and  deservedly  obsolescent. 

List  of  tite  Defective  "Verbs. 


Present. 

Preterit. 

Present. 

PreUrit. 

Beware, 
Can, 

Shall, 
Will, 

should 
would. 

could. 

May, 

might. 

Quoth, 

quoth. 

Must, 

must. 

Wis, 

wist. 

Ought, 

ought. 

Wit, 

wot. 

.J  CHAPTER  YIL— OF  PARTICIPLES, 

f 

A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb, 

participating  the  properties  of  a  verb,  and  of  an 
adjective  or  a  noun ;  and  is  generally  formed  by 
adding  ing^  d^  or  ed^  to  the  verb :  thus,  from  the 
verb  rule^  are  formed  three  participles,  two  sim- 
ple and  one  compound;  as,  1.  riding.^  2.  ruled,  3. 
having  Tided. 

CLASSES. 

English  verbs  have  severally  three  participles ; 


64  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

the  First  or  Imperfect^  the  Second  or  Perfect^  and 
the  Third  or  Preperfect!''' 

I.  The  Imperfect  participle  is  that  which  ends 
commonly  in  ing^  and  implies  a  continuance  of 
the  being,  action,  or  passion  ;  as,  heing^  loving^  see- 
ing^ ivriting — heing  loved^  being  seen^  heing  writing. 

II.  The  Perfect  partici]ple  is  that  which  ends' 
commonly  in  ed  or  en^  and  implies  a  completion  of 
the  being,  action,  or  passion ;  as,  heen^  loved^  seen^ 
written, 

III.  The  Preperfect  participle  is  that  which 
takes  the  sign  liaving^  and  implies  ti previous  com- 
pletion  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion  ;  as,  having 
loved^  having  seen,^  having  ivritten — having  been 
loved^  having  been  writing^  having  been  written. 

The  First  ov  Imperfect  Participle,  when  simple, 
is  always  formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  radical 
verb;  as,  loo\  loohing :  when  compound,  it  is 
formed  by  prefixing  being  to  some  other  simple 
participle ;  as,  being  veadAng^  being  read. 

The  Second  or  Perfect  Participle  is  always  sim^ 
pie,  and  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  d  or  ed  to 
the  radical  verb :  those  verbs  from  which  it  is 
formed  otherwise,  are  inserted  in  the  lists  as  being 
irregular  or  redundant. 

The  Third  or  Preperfect  Participle  is  always 
compound,  and  is  formed  by  prefixing  having  to 
the  perfect,  when  the  compound  is  double,  and 
having  been  to  the  perfect  or  the  imperfect,  when 
the  compound  is  triple ;  as,  having  spoken^  having 
been  spoken.^  having  been  speaking. 

Ohs.  1. — Participles  often  become  adjectives^  and  are  constrned 
before  nouns  to  denote  quality.  The  terms  so  converted  f.  rm  the 
class  of  participial  adjectives.  Words  of  a  participial  form,  may  be 
regarded  as  adjectives:   1.  When  they  denote  something  customary 


*  See  copious  observations  on  the  names  and  properties  of  the  partieiples,  in  the 
Ins  .itutes  of  English  Oranimar.  under  the  Etvmoloijy  of  this  part  of  speech  ;  and  r«- 
marks  etlll  more  extended  in  the  Qiammar  of  English  Grammars,  pp.  o92-39T. 


CHAP.   VII.]  ETYMOLOGY. — ANALYSIS.  65 

or  habitual,  rather  than  a  transient  act  or  state;  as,  A  lying  rogue^ 
i.  e.,  one  addicted  to  lying.  2.  When  they  admit  adverbs  of  co!n- 
parison;  as,^  A  more  learned  man.  3.  When  they  are  compounded 
■with  sometliing  that  does  not  belong  to  the  verb  ;  as,  unfeelinfr.^ 
unfelt.  Adjectives  are  generally  placed  before  their  nouns :  par- 
tici[)les,  after  them. 

Ohs.  2. — Participles  in  ing  often  become  nouns.  When  preceded 
by  an  article,  an  adjective,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  possessive 
case,  they  are  construed  as  nouns,  and  ought  to  take  no  regimen, 
or  object  after  them.  A  participle  immediately  preceded  by  a  prep- 
osition, is  not  converted  into  a  noun,  and  therefore  retains  its 
regimen;  as,  "I  thank  yow for  helping  him.^''  This  construction  of 
the  participle  corresponds  with  the  Latin  gerund. 

Ohs.  3. — To  distinguish  tlie  particijtlc  from  the  participial  noun, 
the  learner  should  observe  the  followingyo'^r  things:  1.  Nouns 
tak»  articles  and  adjectives  before  them;  participles^  as  such,  do 
not.  2.  Nouns  may  govern  the  possessive  case,  but  not  tlie  object- 
ive; participles  may  govern  the  objective  case,  but  not  the  possess- 
ive. 3.  Nouns  may  be  tiie  subjects  or  objects  of  verbs;  participles 
cannot — or,  at  least,  the  projiriety  of  any  sucli  use  of  them,  is  doubt- 
ful. 4.  Participial  nouns  express  actions  as  things;  pjarticiples 
refer  actions  to  their  agents  or  recipients. 

Ohs.  4. — To  distinguish  the  perfect  participle  from  the  preterit 
verb  of  the  same  form,  observe  the  sense^  and  see  wjiich  of  the 
auxiliary  forms  will  express  it :  thus  loved  for  heing  loved,  is  a  par- 
ticiple ;  but  loved  for  did  love^  is  a  preterit  verb. 


ANALYSIS. 


An  adjective,  participle,  noun,  or  pronoun,  mod- 
ifying the  predicate  of  a  sentence  and  relating 
to  the  subject,  is  called  an  attribute;  as,  "Gold 
is  yelloiu.^' — ''  Cain  was  a  murderer.'' — ''  The  sun 
is  shining. "^^ 

Obs.  1. — The  verb  that  connects  the  subject  and  the  attribute, 
must  be  active-intransitive,  passive,  or  neuter.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  copula,  because  it  couj^les  or  joins  the  other  principal 
parts  of  the  sentence 

Ohs.  2. — The  verb  Ve  generally  affirms  only  the  connection  be- 
tween the  sulrject  and  the  attribute.  When  the  latter  is  a  noun,  it 
n:ay  express  1.  Class ;  as,  "CJain  was  a  murderer.'-  2.  laentity  ;  as, 
"Cam  was  ^^e  murderer  of  Abel."  3.  Name;  as,  "The  child  was 
caJled  John.^^ 

Ohs.  3. — Class,  identity,  name,  or  quality  may  ba  attributed  to 


66  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

the  subject  in  various  ways  ;  as,  1.  By  affirming  directly  a  connec- 
tion, as  in  the  preceding  examples  ;  2,  By  affirming  it  to  belong  to 
the  subject,  in  connection  with  a  particular  act  or  state  of  being ; 
as,  ''^  She  looked  a  goddess,  and  she  walked  a  queen." — "The  sun 
stood  still."  3.  By  affirming  a  connection,  but  not  its  previous 
existence  ;  as,  "  He  has  decome  a  scholar."  4.  By  affirming  not 
only  the  connection,  but  the  cavse  or  manner  by  which  it  was  es- 
tablished ;  as,  "  He  was  elected  President." — "  The  twig  has  grown 
a  tree." 

Ohs.  4. — The  attribute  is  often  used  indejinitely^  that  is,  without 
reference  to  any  particular  subject ;  as,  "  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy. ''"' 
— ''  To  be  a  poet  requires  genius."  In  analyzing,  this  may  be  called 
the  indefinite  attribute. 

Obs.  5. — The  attribute,  when  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  is  in  the  same 
case  as  the  subject ;  as,"  It  is  /,  be  not  afraid." 

In  analyzing  a  sentence,  the  attribute  should  be 
considered  one  of  the  principal  parts. 

EXERCISES  m  ANALYSIS  AN"D  PARSmG. 

Exercise  I. — Analyze  the  following  sentences  as  in  the  preceding 
exercises.,  and  point  out  the  attributes  and  their  adjuncts. 

Example, — "Filial  ingratitude  is  a  shameful  crime." 

This  is  a  simpie  declnrative  sentence  ;  the  subject  is  ingratitude;  the  predicate  is 
is;  and  the  attribute,  cTim^'.  The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is ^/ia^;  the  predicate  has 
no  adjuncts  ;  the  adjuncts  of  the  attribute  are  a  and  shameful. 

Honesty  is  the  best  policy.  Napoleon  was  a  great  general. 
"Washington  was  a  true  patriot.  He  was  elected  the  first  president. 
vThe  Bible  is  God's  holy  word.  New  York  is  a  great  commercial 
^  city.  My  brother  has  been  appointed  inspector.  Aristides  was 
styled  the  Just.  -Peter  the  Great,  who  built  St.  Petersburgh,  was  a 
remarkable  man.  He  returned  a  friend,  who  came  a  foe.  •  The  flow-  ^ 
ers  which  my  sister  plucked  yesterday,  s^ll  remain  fresh.-J  Art  isV^"""^* 
long,  and  time  is  fleeting.  Can  that  be  the  man  who  deceived  me  ? 
He  might  have  been  guilty,  but  no  sufficient  proof  could  be  found. 
Virtue  is  bold,  and  Goodness  never  fearful.  Frequent  and  loud 
were  the  maiden's  cries.  How  gorgeous  seems  the  setting  sun ! 
"What  evil  is  this  which  he  had  committed?  Thomas  Jefferson, 
who  wrote  the  Declaration,  was  the  third  president.  General  Leo 
was  taken  prisoner.  Religious  instruction  is  very  necessary  in 
childhood.  Vicious  habits  infallibly  lead  to  ruin.  In  spring,  th^ 
weather  becomes  warm.  David  the  Psalmist  was  King  of  Israel. 
John  the  Baptist  was  the  forerunner  of  Christ.  John  Smith  was 
exploring  Virginia,  when  he  was  taken  prisoner.  That  office  is 
considered  by  some  a  sinecure.  The  Lord  is  my  shepherd  ;  I  sliall 
not  want.  Who  is  this  King  of  glory  ?  He  that  loveth  pleasure, 
shall  be  a  poor  man.    The  wise  in  heart  shall  be  called  prudent. 


CHAP.  VIII.  ETYMOLOGY. — ^ADVEKBS.  67 

The  seed  whicli  was  planted,  has  become  a  huge  tree.  Everything 
that  we  do  often,  we  do  easily.  Repeated  acts  thus  become  habits. 
Habit  has  been  called  ''  second  nature."  The  memory  of  mischief 
is  no  desirable  fame.  We,  who  never  were  his  tavorites,  did  not 
expect  these  attentions.  A  crown  of  glory  are  his  hoary  locks ! 
I  would  act  the  same  part,  if  I  were  he.  A  lie  is  an  intention  to 
deceive.  The  scholar  who  plays  truant,  is  guilty  of  falsehood  ;  be- 
cause he  deceives  his  parents.  Prompting  during  recitation  is 
another  example  of  falsehood. 

Exercise  II. — Parse  each  icord  in  the  ahove  sentences  as  in  the  prev- 
ious exercises',  state  in  addition  the  class  and  modijications  of  the 
verbs. 


CHAPTER  YIIL— OF  ADYEEBS. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  par- 
ticiple, aa  adjective,  or  an  other  adverb  ;  and 
generally  expresses  time,  j^lace,  degree,  or  man- 
ner :  as,  They  are  7ioiv  liere^  studying  very  dill' 
gently, 

Ohs. — Adverbs  briefly  express  what  would  otherwise  require 
several  words  :  as,  here^  for  in  this  place.  Tliere  are  several  cus- 
tomary combinations  of  short  words  which  are  used  adverbially, 
and  which  some  grammarians  do  not  analyze  in  parsing  :  as,  Not  at 
all.,  at  lengthy  in  vain. 

CLASSES. 

Adverbs  may  be  reduced  to  four  general 
classes ;  namely,  adverbs  of  tirne^  oi])lace^  of  de- 
gree^ and  of  TYianner, 

I.  Adverbs  of  time  are  those  which  answer  to 
the  question.  When  ?  Hoiv  long  ?  How  soon  f  or 
Hoio  often  ?  including  these  which  ask.*  Adverbs 
of  time  may  be  subdivided  as  follows  : — 

/ 1.  Of  tim^  present:  as,  Now.,  yet.,  to-day.,  instantly. 

2.  Of  time  past:  as.  Already.,  lately.,  heretofore,  since,  ago» 

8.  Of  time  to  come  :  as,  To-morrow.,  hereafter,  henceforth. 

4.  Of  time  relative:  as,  When,  then,  before,  after.,  while. 

'5.  Of  time  absolute:  as,  Ahcnys,  ever,  never. 

0.  Of  time  repeated:  as,  Often,  seldom,  daily,  thrice. 

[;7.  Of  the  order  of  time:  as,  First,  secondly^  thirdly^  etc. 


68  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

II.  Adverbs  of  'place^  are  those  wLicli  answer 
to  the  question,  Where?   Whither?    Whence?  ov 

Whereabout  ?   including  these   which   ask.     Ad- 
verbs of  place  may  be  subdivided  as  follows  : — 

1.  Of  place  in  wliich  :  as,  WJiere^  liere^  there^  somewhere. 

2.  Of  place  to  which :  as,  Whithei\  hither^  tliither. 
8.  Of  ]Mace  from  which  :  as,  ^Yhence^  hence^  thence. 
4.  Of  the  order  of  place  :  as,  First^  secondly.^  thirdly. 

III.  Adverbs  of  degree^  are  those  which  answer 
to  the  question,  How  much  ?  How  little  ?  or,  to 
the  idea  of  moi'e  or  less.  Adverbs  of  degree  may 
be  subdivided  as  follows  : — 

1.  Of  excess  or  abundance  :  as,  Much,  chiefly,  fully. 

2.  Of  equality :  as,  Enough,  sufficiently,  equally,  so^  as. 

8.  Of  deficiency,  or  abatement:  as,  Little.,  scarcely.,  hardly. 
4.  Of  quantity  :  as,  How.,  everso^  somewhat. 

IV.  Adverbs  of  manner^  are  those  which  an- 
swer to  the  question,  How  ?  or,  by  affirming, 
denying,  or  doubting,  show  how  a  sul)ject  is  re- 
garded. Adverbs  of  manner  may  be  subdivided 
as  follows : — 

1.  Of  quality:  a^.  Well.,  ill.,  wisely.,  foolishly.,  justly,  and  many 

others  formed  by  adding  ly  to  adjectives  of  quality. 

2.  Of  affirmation:  as,  Yes,  yea.,  verily,  truly.,  indeed^  surely. 

3.  Of  negation  :  as,  No,  nay.,  not.,  nowise. 

4.  Of  doubt :  as,  Perhaps.,  haply,  possibly,  jierchance. 

5.  Of  mode:  as.  Thus,  so,  somehow,  like,  else.,  otherwise. 
G.  Of  cause :  as.  Why.,  wherefore.,  therefore. 

Obs. — The  adverbs  here.,  there,  ?ix\{[  where.,  wlien  prefixed  to  prep- 
ositions, have  tlie  force  of  pronouns;  as,  whereby,  for  by  which. 
Compounds  of  this  kind  are,  however,  commoidy  reckoned  adverbs. 

Adverbs  sometimes  perform  the  office  of  con- 
junctions, and  serve  to  connect  sentences,  as  well 
as  to  express  some  circumstance  of  time,  place, 
degree,  or  manner ;  adverbs  that  are  so  used,  are 
caWed  conjunctive  adverbs  :  as,  When^  tuhere^  after^ 
before^  since.,  therefore^  etc, 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adverbs  have  no  modifications,  except  that  a 


CHAP.  IX.]        ETYMOLOGY. — CONJUNCTIONS.  69 

few  are  compared  after  the  raanner  of  adjectives  : 
as,  Soon^  sooner^  soonest  j — often^  oftenei\  oftenest'j 
— long^  longer^  longest. 

The  following  are  irregularly  compared :  loell^ 
better^  best  ; — hadhj  or  ill^  worse^  worst ; — little^ 
less^  least ; — mucli^  more^  most  • — /ar,  farther^  far- 
iliest ; — -forth^  further^  Jurtliest 

Obs.  1. — Most  adverbs  of  quality  will  admit  the  comparative  ad- 
verbs mare  and  most^  less  and  least^  before  tlietn  :  as,  wisely^  more 
wisely^  most  wisely^ — culpably^  less  culpably^  least  culvably.  But 
these  should  be  parsed  separately. 

Obs.  2. — As  comparison  does  not  belong  to  adverbs  in  general,  it 
should  not  be  mentioned  in  parsing,  except  in  the  case  of  those  few 
which  are  varied  by  it. 


CHAPTER  IX.— OF  CONJUN^CTIOISrS. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words 
or  sentences  in  construction,  and  to  show  the  de- 
pendence of  the  terms  so  connected:  as,  ^'Thou 
and  he  are  happy,  because  you  are  good." — Miu\ 

CLASSES. 

Conjunctions  are  divided  into  two  general 
classes,  copulative  and  disjunctive  j  and  some  of 
each  of  these  sorts  are  corresponsive. 

I.  A  copulative  conjunction  is  a  conjunction 
that  denotes  an  addition,  a  cause,  or  a  supposi- 
tion :  as,  ''  He  and  I  shall  not  dispute  ;  /or,  if  he 
has  any  choice,  I  shall  readily  grant  it." 

II.  A  disjunctive  conjunction  is  a  conjunction 
that  denotes  opposition  of  meaning  :  as,  ^*  Be  not 
overcome  [by  ]  evil,  but  overcome  evil  with  good." 
— Rom,^  xii,  21. 

III.  The  corresponsive  conjunctions  are  those 
which  are  used  in  pairs,  so  that  one  refers  or  an- 


70  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  11. 

swers  to  an  other  :  as,  "  Jolm  came  neither  eating 
nor  drinking." — Matt^  xi,  18. 

The  following  are  the  principal  conjunctions : — • 

1.  Copulative ;  And^  as^  both^  because^  even, 
for,  if,  that,  then,  since,  seeing,  so. 

2.  Disjunctive;  Or,  nor,  either,  neither,  than, 
though,  although,  yet,  but,  except,  whether,  lest, 
unless,  save,  notioithstanding. 

3.  Corresponsive  ;  Both — and  j  as — as;  as — 
so;  if — then;  either — or;  neither — nor ;  whether 
— or  ;  though,  or  although — yet. 


CHAPTER  X.— OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some 
relation  of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  each 
other,  and  is  generally  placed  before  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun :  as,  The  paper  lies  before  me  on  the 
desk. 

The  following,  are  the  principal  prepositions : 
Aboard,  about,  above,  across,  after,  against,  aloyig, 
amid  or  amidst,  among  or  amongst,  around,  at, 
athivart ; — before,  behind,  below,  beneath,  beside 
or  besides,  between  or  betwixt,  beyond,  by  ; — con- 
cerning ; — doivn,  during  ; — except,  excepting  ; — 
for,  from  ; — in,  into  ; — notioithstanding  ; — of  off, 
on,  out-of  over,  overthwart ; — -j^as^y — round; — 
since; — through,  throughout,  till,  to,  touching, 
toivard  or  towards; — under,  underneath,  until, 
unto,  up,  upon  ; — with,  within,  ivithout 

Ohs.—TliQ  words  in  tlie  preceding  list  are  generally  prepositions. 
But  when  any  of  them  are  employed  without  a  subsequent  term  of 
relation  they  are  adverbs.  Foi\  when  it  signifies  because^  is  a  con- 
junction; without^  when  used  for  unless^  and  notwithstanding^ 
when  placed  before  a  nominative,  are  usually  referred  to  the  class 
of  conjunctions  also. 


CHAP.  Xr.]        ETYMOLOGY. —  INTERJECTIONS.  71 


CHAPTER  XI.— OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely 
to  indicate  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the 
mind  :  as,  Oh  I  alas  ! 

The  following  are  the  principal  interjections, 
arranged  according  to  the  emotions  which  they 
are  generally  intended  to  indicate  :  1.  Joy ;  eigli  ! 
Tiey  !  to  ! — 2.  Sorrow  ;  oh  !  ah  !  alas  I  alack  ! 
welladay  ! — 3.  Wonder  ;  heigh  I  ha^ !  strange  I — 
4.  Wishing  or  earnestness ;  0  I — 5.  Pain :  oh  I  ah  I 
eh  I — 6.  Contempt ;  jpugh  I  jpoh  I  pshaw  !  pish  I 
tush  !  tut ! — 7.  Aversion  ;  foh  !  fie  !  off  !  begone  ! 
avaunt  I — 8.  Calling  aloud  ;  ho  !  soho  !  hollo  I — 

9.  Exultation  ;  aha  I  huzza  I  heyday  I  hurrah  ! — 

10.  Laughter;  ha^  ha^  ha. — 11.  Salutation; 
welcome!  hail!  all  hail! — 12.  Calling  to  atten- 
tion; lo  !  behold!  look!  see!  harlc ! — 13.  Call- 
ing to  silence ;  hush  !  hist !  mum  ! — 14.  Surprise ; 
oh  !  ha  !  hah  !  what ! — 1 5.  Languor  ;  heigh-ho  I 
— 16.  Stopping;  avast!  wholi! 


-7 


ANALYSIS. 


The  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  are  the  sub- 
ject, the  PREDICATE,  and  the  object  or  attribute, 
if  there  be  either. 

The  other  parts  may  be,  1.  Primary  or  second- 
ary adjuncts  I  2.  Words  used  to  express  relation 
or  connection ;  3.  Independent  words. 

Adjuncts,  as  to  their  nature,  are  adjective^  ad- 
verbial^ or  explanatory. 

Adjuncts  are  adjective  or  adverbial  when  they 
are  used  as  adjectives  or  adverbs. 

Explanatory  adjuncts  are  those  used  to  explain 


72  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PART  II. 

a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun;  as,  "The  emperor 
Napoleony  —  "Paul  the  Apostle.'' — "We,  the 
people  of  the  United  States." 

Adjuncts,  as  to  their  form,  are  ivords^  phrases^ 
or  clauses. 

A  plirase  is  two  or  mqre  words  which  express 
some  relation  of  ideas,  but  no  entire  proposition  ; 
as,  "Of  a  good  disposition." — "By  the  means 
appointed." — "  Having  loved  his  own." 

A  phrase  may  be  used  in  three  ways ;  namely, 

1.  As  one  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  ; 

2.  As  an  adjunct;   3.  It  may  be  independent. 
Yfhen  a  phrase  is  used  as  an  adjunct,  it  is  ad- 
jective^ adverbial^  or  explanatory. 

A  phrase,  used  in  the  place  of  a  noun,  is  called 
a  substantive  plirase  j  as,  "  Jb  do  good  is  the  duty 
of  all" 

An  independent  plirase  is  one  the  principal  part 
of  which,  is  not  related  to,  or  connected  with,  any 
word  in  the  rest  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "^e  failing, 
who  shall  meet  success  ?"  - 

The  principal  part  of  a  phrase  is  that  on  which 
all  the  others  depend;  as,  "Under  every  misfor- 
tuney — ^^ Having  exhausted  every  expedient."    \ 

Ols.  1. — A  preposition  that  introduces  a  phrase,  serves  only  to 
express  the  relation  between  tlie  principal  part,  and  the  word  of 
the  sentence,  on  which  the  phrase  depends. 

Ols.  2. — Phrases  are  also  classified  as  to  their  form,  depending 
upon  the  inlrodacing  word,  or  the  ^9ri/ic//>a^  part;  t!ms : 

1.  A  phrase,  introduced  by  a  preposition,  is  called  a  prejyositionat 
jjhrase ;  as,  "By  doing  good." — '"  Of  great  learning." 

2.  A  phrase,  the  principal  part  of  which  is  a  verb  in  the  infini' 
tive  mood,  is  called  an  infinitive  plirase  ;  as,  ''  To  he  goody 

3.  A  phrase,  the  ])rincipal  part  of  which  is  a  ])articiple;  is  called 
a,  participial  phrase  ;  as,  '"'A  ineaaurejoundedonjusticey 

01)s.  3. — A  phrase,  used  as  a  subject  or  object,  can,  with  strict 
adherence  to  grammatical  rules,  he  only  infinitive  in  form  ;  as,  "  To 
disobey  parents  is  disgracofii}." — "  William  loves  to  study  gram- 
mar."    (See  Obs.  4,  Rule  XIY.) 


CHAP.  XI.]  ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  73 

Ohs.  4. — A  phrase,  used  as  an  attribute,  may  b©  substantive  or 
adjective  in  its  nature,  and  may  be,  in  furin, 

1.  Infinitive ;  as,  "The  object  of  punishment  is  to  reform  the 
giiilti/.'"  —  ''BU  conduct  is  to  be  admired.''''  In  the  second  ex- 
ample it  is  adjective,  being  equivalent  to  admirable. 

2.  Prepositional ;  as,  ''He  is  in  good  healtJi.'" — "The  train  was 
behind  time.''''     These  are  adjective  phrases. 

Ohs.  5. — An  adjective  2ylirase  may  have  the  following  forms: 

1.  Prepositional ;  as,  "Carelessness  in  the  use  of  money  \s  a  vice.'' 

2.  Infinitive  ;  as,  "  Tlie  desire  to  do  good  is  praiseworthy." 

3.  Participial ;  as,   ^''Seeing  the  danger^  he  avoided  it." 

Obs.  G, — An  adverbial  phrase  may  have  the  following  forms  : 

1.  Prepositional ;  as,   "  ITe  was  industrious  in  study.'''' 

2.  Infinitive ;  as,  "Be  swift  to  hear.,  and  slow  to  spjeaJc." 

3.  Idiomatic;  as,  "In  vain." — "Day  by  day." — ""By  and  by." 

Obs.  6. — An  explanatory  phrase  is  substantive  in  its  nature,  and 
infinitive  in  form;  as,  "It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun!''' 

Obs.  7. — The  independent  phrase  is  various  in  form  and  character. 
It  niay  be  distinguished  as, 

1.  Infinitive  ;  as,  "  To  be  candid.,  I  was  in  fault." 

2.  Participial ;  as,  "  Considering  the  circumstances.^  much  credit 
is  due." 

3.  Vocative;  as,  "  Boast  not,  wy  <?e«r/nV77iZ,  of  to-morrow." 

4.  Pleonastic;  ns,  "  The  blessing  of  the  Lord.,  it  maketh  rich." 

5.  Absolute  ;  "  The  sun  rising.,  the  mists  were  dispersed." 

Ohs.  8. — The  last  form  of  this  phrase  is  generally  adverbial  in  mean- 
nig,  being  independent  only  in  construction. 

Exercise. — Analyze  the  following  sentences.,  and  point  out  the  ex- 
planatory adjuncts  and  the  phrases ;  parse  each  word  as  in  tha 
pjreceding  exercises. 

Example. — "  Diogenes,  the  Greek  philosopher,  lived  in  a  tub." 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence;  the  subject  is  Dioqenes;  the  predicate, 
Z/«<'f/;  T^/ti^o.wyMcr  is  an  explanatory  adjunct  of  the  subject ;  the  and  Greek  are  ad- 
jiihcts  of  7>/tt7o.w/>/i,e/'.  The  adjunct  of  ^iye*^  is  the  adverbial  phrase,  in.  a  tub.  The 
principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  tab,  of  which  a  is  an  adjunct. 

The  butterfly,  child  of  the  summer,  flutters  among  the  flowers. 
Mahomet  was  a  native  of  Mecca,  a  city  in  Arabia.  The  Oabots, 
natives  of  Venice,  were  the  first  discoverers  of  North  America. 
Spain  was,  at  one  time,  the  wealthiest  country  of  Europe.  In  the 
path  of  life,  no  one  is  constantly  regaled  with  flowers.  Industry  is 
needful  in  every  condition  of  life:  the  price  of  all  im.provement  is 
labor.  In  the  fifth  century,  the  Franks,  a  people  of  Germany,  in- 
vaded France.  The  book  which  William  has  lost,  was  a  present 
from  his  brother  Henry.  When  Alfred  the  Great  ascended  the 
throne  of  England,  he  was  greatly  harassed  by  the  Danes,  a  piratical 
people  from  Scandinavia.  A  brave  man,  he  would  not  wantonly 
injure  others. 


74  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  JPART  III, 

PART     III. 

SYNTAX. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  gov- 
ernment, and  arrangement,  of  words  in  sentences. 

The  relation  of  words,  is  their  dependence,  or 
connexion,  according  to  the  sense. 

The  agreement  of  words,  is  their  similarity  in 
person,  number,  gender,  case,  mood,  tense,  or 
form. 

The  government  of  words,  is  that  power  which 
one  word  has  over  another,  to  cause  it  to  assume 
some  particular  modification. 

The  arrangement  of  words,  is  their  collocation, 
or  relative  position,  in  a  sentence. 

The  leading  principles  to  be  observed  in  the 
construction  of  sentences,  or  to  be  applied  in  their 
analysis  by  Syntactical  Parsing,  are  embraced  in 
the  following  twenty -six  Rules  of  Syntax. 


CHAPTER   L— OF    RELATION   AND 
AGREEMENT. 

Rule  I. — Articles. 

Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  which  they  limit : 
as,  "  At  a  little  distance  from  the  ruins  of  the 
abbey,  stands  an  aged  elm." 

Ohs.  1. — Articles  often  relate  to  nouns  undzrutood ;  as,  "The 
\riter']  Thames." — "Pliny  the  younger"  [/n««] --"The  honourable 
[body']  the  Legislature." — "  The  animal  [icorld]  and  the  vegetable 
world."— "  The  Old  [Testament']  and  the  Kew  Testament." 

Qls.  2. — Articles  belong  tefore  their  nouns ;;  but  the  definite 
article  and  an  adjective  seem  sometimes  to  b(>  placed  after  the 
noun  to  which  the/  both   relate :  as,  "  Section   the  Fourth  ;"w 


CHAP.    I.]  SYXTAX. — NOMINATIVES.  75 

''Henry  ^Ae  Eighth."     Such  examples,  hoTvever,  may  be  supposed 
elliptical ;  and,  if  they  are  so,  an  article  cannot  be  placed  after  its 
noun,  nor  can  two  articles  ever  relate  to  one  and  tlie  same  noun. 
Qls.  3. — The  definite  article  is  often  prefixed  to  comjjaratives  and 


the  most  fit." — "A  claim  tJie  strongest,  and  the  most  easily  compre- 
hended." In  these  cases,  the  article  seems  to  relate  only  to  the 
adjective  or  adverb  following  it ;  but,  after  the  adjective,  the  noun 
may  be  supplied. 

Qj)s,  4. — The  article  the  is  applied  to  noims  of  both  numbers :  as, 
The  man,  the  men  -^  —  Th-e  good  boy,  the  good  boys. 

OJ)g^  5. — jin  or  a  implies  one,  and  is  prefixed  to  nouns  of  the  sin- 
gular number  only ;  as,  A  man,  a  good  boy. 

Q^s.  6. — An  or  a  is  sometimes  prefixed  to  an  adjective  of  num- 
ber, when  the  noun  following  is  plural :  as,  A  few  days, — a  hun- 
dred sheep.  Here  also  the  article  relates  only  to  the  adjective ; 
unless yeto,  hundred^  etc.^  are  nouns  Avith  <?/ understood  after  them. 

Ols.  7. — A^  as  prefixed  to  participles  in  ing^  or  used  iii  composi- 
tion, is  fi  preposition  ;  being,  probably,  the  French  a,  signifying  to^ 
at,  on^  in^  or  of;  as,  "He  is  gone  a  hunting." — "They  burst  out 
a  laughing." — ''She  lies  a-bed  all  day." 

Ols.  8. — An  is  sometimes  a  conjunction^  signifying  if;  as, 

"Nay,  an  thou'lt  mouthe,  I'll  rant  as  well  as  thou." — Shah. 

KULE   II. — KOMINATIVES. 

A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  wHch  is  the  subject  of  a 
finite  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case :  as, 
"  I  know  tfiou  sayst  it :  says  tliy  life  the  same  V 

O^s.  1. — Every  nominative  belongs  to  some  verb,  unless  it  bo 
put  in  ajjposition  according  to  Rule  3d,  after  a  veri  according  to 
Kule  21st,  or  absolute  according  to  Fade  25th. 

Obs.  2. — The  subject,  or  nominative,  is  generally  placed  before 
the  verb  ;  as,  "  Peace  dawned  upon  his  mind." — Johnson.  "  Wliat 
is  written  in  tlie  law." — Bible. 

Obs.  3. — But,  in  the  following  nine  cases,  the  subject  is  placed 
after  the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary : — 

1.  When  a  question  is  asked  without  an  interrogative  pronoun  in 
the  nominative  case ;  as,  "  Shall  mortals  be  implacable  ?" — "  Wiiat 
art  thou  doing  ?" — HooTce. 

2.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  imperative  mood  ;  as,  "  Go  thou.^* 

3.  When  an  earnest  wish,  or  other  strong  feeling,  is  expressed ; 
a?,  "  May  she  be  happy  !" — "  How  were  ice  struck  !" — Young. 

4.  When  a  supposition  is  made  without  a  conjunction  ;  as,  "  Were 
it  true,  it  would  not  injure  us." 

5.  When  neither  or  nor,  signifj'ing  and  not.,  precedes  the  verb ; 
as,  "  This  was  his  fear  ;  nor  was  his  apprehension  groundless." 

6.  When,  for  the  sake  of  eniphasis,  some  word  or  words  are 


76  ENGLISH  GEAMKA.R.  [PART  III, 

placed  before  the  verb,  which  more  iiatiirnlly  come  after  it;  as, 
"Here  am  /."'—'' Narrow  is  the  way.'" — ''Silver  and  gold  have  / 
none." — Bible. 

7.  "When  the  ve"b  has  no  regimen,  and  is  itself  emphatical ;  as, 
''''Echo  the  mountains  round." — Thompson. 

8.  When  the  verbs  say^  thinlc.^  reply.^  and  the  like,  introduce  the 
parts  of  a  dialogue ;  as,  " '  Son  of  affliction,'  said  Omar.,  '  wlio  art 
f  hou  ?'     '  My  name,'  replied  the  strangei\  '  is  Hassan.'  " — Johnson, 

(  9.  When  the  adverb  there  precedes  the  verb  ;  as,  "  There  lived  a 
man.''' — Montgomery.     "  There  needs  no  ])roo/of  this." 

EuLE  III. — Apposition. 

A  JN'oun  or  a  personal  Pronoun,  used  to  explain 
a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by  apposition, 
in  the  same  case  :  as, 

"But  A(?,  our  gracious  Master^  kind  as  just, 

"  Knowing  our  frame,  remembers  we  are  dust." 

01)S.  1. — Appositlo7i  is  the  using  of  different  words  or  appella- 
tions to  designate  the  same  thing.  Ajjposition  also  denotes  the  re- 
lation which  exists  between  the  words  which  are  so  employed.  In 
parsing,  the  rule  of  apposition  should  be  applied  only  to  the  explan- 
atory term  ;  for  the  case  of  the  principal  word  depends  on  its  re- 
lation to  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  and  comes  under  some  other 
rule. 

Ohs.  2. — This  rule  involves  a  variety  of  forms  of  expression,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  following  examples  :  "  I,  thy  schoolmaster^  have 
made  thee  protit." — ShaJc.  ''I,  even  /,  am  he."— /sG^iaA,  xliii.  "I 
am  the  Lord,  your  Holy  One^  the  Creator  of  Israel,  your  K'mg.'''' — 
Jd.  ''  They  shall  every  man  turn  to  his  own  people." — Id.  "  Be- 
liold,  I  create  Jerusalem  a  rejoicing.,  and  her.  peoi)le  a  joy.''''— Id, 
''Righteousness  and  peace  have  kissed  each  other." — Psalms. 
"  That  ye  love  one  an  other."— iv^.  Test.  ''  Be  ye  helpers  one  of  an 
other."— /^Z.  "To  make  him  king.''^ — Id.  "With  modesty  thy 
guide.'''' — Pope. 

Ohs.  8, — Tiie  explanatory  word  is  sometimes  placed  Jirst^  espe- 
cially among  the  poets  ;  as, 

"  From  bright'ning  fields  of  ether  fair  disclos'd, 

"  Child  of  the  sun,  refulgent  Summer  comes." — Thomson. 

Ohs.  4. — The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons,  are  often 
prefixed  to  nouns  merely  to  distinguish  their  j^erso/i.  In  this  case 
of  apposition,  the  words  are  not  separated  by  a  comma;  and  either 
of  them  maybe  taken  as  the  explanatory  term :  as,  "//o/msaw 
these  things'!" — "  His  praise,  ye  brooks^  attune."  So  also,  when  two 
or  more  nouns  form  one  proper  name  ;  as,  John  Home  Toolce. 

Ohs.  5. — When  two  or  more  nouns  of  the  possessive  case  are  put 
in  apposition,  the  possessive  terminatiim  added  to  one,  denotes  the 
case  of  both  or  all:    as,   "  llis  hrollwr  Philips  wife ;"— "e7b/i« 


I 


CHAP.    I.]  SYNTAX. —  ADJECTIVES.  77 

baptist's  head ;" — "  At  my  friend  Jolmsori's^  tho  loohseller."^  By  a 
repetition  of  the  possessive  sign,  a  distinct  governing  noun  is  im- 
plied, nnd  tlie  apposition  is  destroyed. 

Obs.  6. — When  an  object  acquires  a  new  name  or  character  from 
the  action  of  a  verb,  the  now  appellation  is  put  in  apposition  with 
the  object  of  the  active  verb,  and  in  tlie  nominative  after  the  pass- 
ive: as,  "They  named  the  child  John  f"* — "The  c/iiVtZ  was  named 
John.'''' — -'They  elected  him  president ;'' — "  iZt;  was  elected  presi- 

EuLE  IV. — Adjectives. 

Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns :  as, 
"  He  is  a  wise  man^  though  lie  is  youngj'' 

Ohs.  1. — When  an  adjective  follows  a  verb,  it  generally  relates 
to  the  subject  going  before ;  as,  "  /  am  glad  that  the  door  is  made 
'Wide.'''' 

QJ)s.  2. — An  adjective  sometimes  relates  to  a  phrase  or  sentence^ 
which  is  substituted  for  a  noun;  as,  "  That  he  should  refuse.^  is  not 
strange^ 

OJ)s,  3. — Adjectives  preceded  by  the  definite  article,  are  often 
used,  by  ellipsis,  as  having  the  force  of  nouns.  They  designate 
those  classes  of  objects  whicii  are  characterized  by  the  qualities 
they  express.  They  are  mostly  confined  to  the  plural  number,  and 
refer  to  p>€rsons^  places.^  or  things.,  understood  ;  as,  "  The  good  \j)er- 
sonii\  must  merit  God's  peculiar  cave,.''''— Pope. 

Obs.  4. — By  an  ellipsis  of  the  noun,  an  adjective  with  a  preposi- 
tion before  it,  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  an  adverb  ;  as,  "//i  ptar- 
t'lcular  f  that  is,  2/1  a  particular  manner;  equivalent  to  particu- 
larly. In  parsing,  supply  the  ellipsis.  [See  Obs.  2d,  under  Rule 
xxii.] 

Obs.  5. — Adjectives  that  imply  unity  or  plurality,  must  agree 
with  their  nouns  in  number  ;  as,  That  sort,  tliose  sorts.   - 

Q^^^  6. — When  the  adjective  is  necessarily  ^j^i^m?,  the  noun 
should  be  made  so  too;  as,  "Twenty  jjounds  ;'^  not,  "Twenty 
pound.^''  In  some  peculiar  phrases,  this  rule  appears  to  be  disre- 
garded ;  as,  "  Tioenty  sail  of  vessels ; — "  A  hundred  head  of  cattle ;" 
. — "  Two  hundred  2)ennyworth  of  bread." 

Ql)S^  7, — To  denote  a  collective  number.,  a  singular  adjective  may 
precede  a  plural  one ;  as,  ''^One  hundred  men," — '-Eiery  six  weeks." 

Ql)s.  8. — To  denote  plurality,  the  adjective  many  may,  in  like 
manner,  precede  an  or  «,  with  a  singular  noun  ;  as, 

"  Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen." — Gray. 

Obs.  9. — Tiie  reciprocal  expression,  one  an  other,  should  not  be 
applied  to  two  objects,  nor  eacJi  other.,  or  one  the  other.,  to  more  than 
two :  because  reciprocity  between  two  is  some  act  or  relation  of 
each  or  one  to  the  other'.,  which  is  an  objective  definite,  and  not  of 
©ne  to  an  other,  Avhich  is  indefinite  ;  but  reciprocity  among  three 
or  more  is  of  one,  each,  or  every  one,  not  to  one  other,  solely,  or  to 
tTie  other,  definitely,  but  to  others,  a  plurality,  or  to  an  other,  taken 
indefinitely  and  implying  this  plurality. 


7'g  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [PART  IIL 

Ghs.  10. — Tlie  comparative  degree  can  only  be  used  in  reference 
to  two  objects,  or  chi-ses  of  objects;  the  superlative  compares  one 
or  more  thinj^rs  vvitli  all  others  of  the  same  class,  whether  few  or 
many;  as,  "Edward  is  taller  than  James ;  he  is  the  largest  of  mj 
scholars." 

EuLE  Y. — Pronouns. 

A  Pronoun  must  agree  with,  its  antecedent,  or 
the  noun  or  pronoun  whicli  it  represents,  in  per- 
son, number,  and  gender:  as,  ''This  is  the  friend 
of  whom  I  spoke ;  he  has  just  arrived." — "  This  is 
the  book  which  I  bought ;  it  is  an  excellent  work." 
— "Ye,  therefore,  who  love  mercy,  teach  your 
sons  to  love  it  too." — Coivper, 

Ohs.  1. — When  the  antecedent  is  used  Jigurativehj^  the  pronoun 
often  agrees  with  it  in  the  figurative,  and  not  in  the  literal  sense; 
as,  "  Grim  Bareness  furls  7ds  leaden  shroud."  [See  Syllepsis  among 
the  figures  of  Syntax.] 

Obs.  2. — The  pronoun  idc  is  used  by  the  speaker  to  represent  liim- 
self  and  othei*s,  and  is  therefore  plural.  But  it  is  sometimes  used, 
by  a  sort  of  fiction,  instead  of  the  singular,  to  intimate  that  the 
speaker  or  writer  is  not  alone  in  his  opinions. 

Obs.  3. — The  pronoun  you,  though  originally  and  properly  plural, 
i-^  now  generally  applied  alike  to  one  person  or  more.  [See  Inst, 
K  Gramm.^  pp.  5G  and  137.] 

()])s,  4, — A  pronoun  sometimes  represents  a  ^^ilirase  ov  sentetice,  or 
a  quality  expressed  before  by  an  adjective.  In  this  case,  the  pro- 
noun is  always  in  the  third  person,  singular,  neuter :  as,  '■'■  She  is 
very  handsome;  and  she  has  the  misfortune  to  know  ity 

Obs.  5. — The  pronoun  it  is  often  used  without  a  definite  refer- 
ence to  any  antecedent ;  and,  still  more  frequently,  it  refers  to 
something  mentioned  in  the  subsequent  part  of  the  sentence.  This 
pronoun  is  a  necessary  expletive  at  the  commencement  of  a  sen- 
tence, in  which  the  verb  is  followed  by  a  clause  which,  by  trans- 
position, may  be  made  the  subject  to  the  verb;  as,  '■''It  is  impossible 
to  please  every  one^ — "/^  was  requisite  that  the  jmpers  should  be  sentj'^ 

Obs.  6. — In  familiar  language,  the  relative  in  the  objective  case 
is  ivQ(:\nQX\t\y  understood ;  as,  "Here  is  the  letter  \iohich']  I  received." 
The  omission  of  the  relative  in  the  nominative  case,  is  inelegant; 
as,  ''This  is  the  worst  thing  [thatl^  could  happen," 

EuLE  YI. — Pronouns. 

"When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  con- 
veying the  idea  of  plurality,  the  Pronoun  must 
agree  with  it,  in  the  plural  number:  as,  "The 
council  were  divided  in  their  sentiments." 


CHAP.    I.]  SYNTAX. —  PEON. — ^VERBS.  79 

01)s.  1. — A  collective  nonn  conveying  the  idea  of  unity  requires 
a  pronoun  in  the  third  person,  singular,  neuter;  as,  "The  nation 
will  enforce  its  laws." 

Ols.  2. — Most  collective  nouns  of  the  neuter  gender,  may  take 
the  regular  plural  form^  and  he  represented  hy  a  pronoun  in  the 
third  person,  plural,  neuter;  as,  "The  nations  will  enforce  their  laws," 

EuLE  YII. — Phono UNS. 

When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents 
connected  by  and^  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
plural  number:  as,  ^'"flames  and  John  will  favour 
us  with  ilieir  company." 

Ohs.  1. — When  the  antecedents  are  of  different  persons,  the  first 
person  is  preferred  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third;  as, 
"John,  and  thou,  and  I,  are  attached  to  our  country." — "John  and 
thou  are  attached  to  your  countr}-." 

Ohs.  2. — The  gender  of  pronouns,  except  in  the  third  person 
singular,  is  distinguished  o^iy  by  their  antecedents.  In  expressing 
that  of  a  pronoun  which  has  antecedents  of  different  genders^  the 
masculine  should  be  preferred  to  the  feminine,  and  the  feminine  to 
the  neuter. 

EuLE  VIII. — Peonouns. 

When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  more  singular 
antecedents  connected  by  or  or  nor^  it  must  agree 
wdth  them  in  the  singular  number:  as,  ^^  James  or 
John  will  favour  us  with  his  company." 

Ohs. — When  antecedents  of  different  persons,  numbers,  or  gen- 
ders, are  connected  by  or  or  nor^  they  cannot  be  represented  by  a 
pronoun  that  is  not  applicable  to  each  of  them. 

^^     BULE   IX. — YeKBS. 

A  finite  Verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or 
nominative,  in  person  and  number:  as,  "I  hnoiu ; 
thou  Jcnowst,  or  knowest  ^'  he  Icnows.^  or  IcnowethP 
''The  bird //^.i"/  the  birds /^'." 

Ohs.  1, — The  adjuncts  of  the  nominative,  do  not  control  its  agree- 
ment with  the  verb;  as,  "Six  months'  interest  was  due." — "  Tlie 
propriety  of  these  rules  is  evident." — "  The  wi7?,  with  all  its  ap- 
purtenances, teas  destroyed.'" 

Ohs.  2. — The  infinitive  mood,  ^plirase,  or  a  sentence,  is  sometimes 
the  subject  to  a  verb:  a  subject  of  this  kind,  however  composed,  if 
it  is  taken  as  one  whole,  requires  a  verb  in  the  third  person,  singu- 
lar; as.  "  To  lie  is  base." — ''To see  the  sun  is  pleasant." — ''Thatyou 
have  violated  the  laic,  i«  evident." — ''For  what  purpose  they  emr 
harlced^  is  not  yet  known." 


80  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  III. 

Qlg^  3, — A  neuter  verb  between  two  nominatives  should  be  made 
to  agree  with  that  which  precedes  it;  as,  "Words  are  wind:"  ex- 
cept when  the  terms  are  rhetorically  transposed,  and  the  proper 
subject  is  put  after  the  verb ;  as,  "  His  pavilion  were  dark  icaters 
and  thick  clouds:'—''  Who  art  thou .?" 

Obs.  4. — When  the  verb  has  different  forms^  that  form  should  bo 
adopted  which  is  the  most  consistent  with  present  and  reputable 
usage,  in  the  style  employed :  tlius,  to  say  familiar^',  "  The  clock 
hath  stricTcen^'''' — "  Thou  laughedst  and  talhedst,  when  thou  oughtest 
to  have  been  silent," — "He  readeth  and  icriteth^  but  he  doth  not 
cipher,"— would  be  no  better,  than  to  use,  donH^  icorCt^  canH^  shanH^ 
and  didfi't,  in  preaching. 

Obs.  5, — The  nominative  to  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mood,  is 
geueraWy  omitted;  as,  "Guide  [thou]  my  lonely  way."  With  tho 
verb  in  all  the  other  personal  tenses,  the  nominative  must  be  ex- 
pressed: except  where  two  or  more  verbs  are  connected  in  the 
Barae  construction;  as,  "They  bud,  blow,  wither,  foil,  and  die." 

EuLE  X. — Verbs. 
When  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  con- 
veying the  idea  of  plurality,  the  Verb  must  agree 
with  it  in  the  plural  number ;  as,  "  The  council 
we?^e  divided." 

Qbs. — A  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  tinitij^  requires  a 
verb  in  tlie  third  person,  singular;  and  generally  admits  also  the 
regular  plural  construction:  as,  "Ilis  army  was  defeated."— "Ills 
armies  were  defeated." 

EuLE  XL — Yerbs. 

When  a  Verb  has  two  or  more   nominatives 
connected  by  and^  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
plural  number :  as, 
''  Judges  and  senates  have  heen  houglit  for  gold  ; 

Esteem  and  love  ivere  never  to  be  sold." — Pope. 

Obs.  1. — Tho  conjunction  is  sometiuics  understood ;  as, 
"Art,  empire,  earth  itself,  to  change  are  doomed." — Beattie. 
Obs.  2. — When  the  nouns  connected  arc  descriptive  of  one  and 
the  same  thing.,  they  are  in  apposition,  and  do  not  require  a  plural 
verb :  as,  "This  piiilosopher  and  poeticas  banished  from  his  country." 
Ql)s.  3. — When  the  same  nominative  is  repeated.,  the  words  are  in 
apposition,  and  do  not  require  a  plural  verb :  as, 

"  Love,  and  love  only,  is  the  loan  for  love."—  Young. 
Qbs.  4. — When  Ihe  verb  separates  its  nominatives^  it  agrees  with 
that  which  precedes  it,  and  is  understood  to  the  rest;  as, 

"Forth  in  the  pleasing  spring 

Thj  beauty  icalh^  thy  tenderness,  and  love." — Thomson. 


CHAP.    I.]  SYNTAX. —  VERBS.  81 

Ohs.  5. — "When  two  subjects  are  connected,  one  of  wliicli  is  taken 
affirmativel}',  and  the  other  negatively,  they  belong  to  different 
propositions;  and  tlie  verb  or  pronoun  must  agree  witli  the  ajjirm- 
a^trd  subject,  and  be  understood  to  tlie  other:  as,  "Diligent  in- 
diistry^  and.  not  mean  savings,  'p'^'oduces  honourable  competence." 
So  also  when  subjects  are  connected  by  as  well  «.?,  hut^  or  mte  ;  as, 
'''CeesaVy  as  well  as  Cicero,  icas  admired  for  his  eloquence." — '•''Noth- 
ing but  wailings  loas  heardy — '■'■None  but  thou  can  aid  us." — "No 
mortal  maii,  save  he,  had  e'er  survived^ — Scott. 

Ohs.  6. — When  the  subjects  are  severally  preceded  by  the  adjec- 
tive each.^  every ^  or  no,  they  are  taken  separately,  and  require  a  verb 
and  pronoun  in  the  singular  number;  as, 

"And  every  sense,  and  every  heart,  is  joy." — Thomson. 
"Each  beast,  each  insect,  happy  in  its  own." — Po2)e. 

Ohs.  7. — Two  or  more  distinct  QwV^Qct 2^hrases  connected  by  and^ 
require  a  plural  verb ;  as,  "2b  he  icise  in  our  own  eyes,  to  he  loise  in 
the  opinion  of  the  world,  and  to  he  icise  in  the  sight  of  our  Creator^ 
<tre  three  thing?  so  very  different  as  rarely  to  coincide. — Blair. 

EuLE  XII. — ^Yerbs. 

When  a  Verb  has  two  or  more  singular  nomi 
natives  connected  by  or  or  7101%  it  must  agree  with 
them  in  the  singular  number :  as,  "Fear  6>?' jeab 
ousy  affects  him." 

Ohs.  1. — When  a  verb  has  nominatives  of  different  persons  or 
numhers,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  Avith  that  which  ia 
placed  next  to  it,  and  be  understood  to  the  rest  in  the  person  and 
number  required  ;  as,  "Neither  he  nor  his  brothers  icere  there." — 
"  Neither  you  nor  I  am  concerned." 

Ohs.  2. — But  when  the  nominatives  require  different  forms  of  the 
verb,  it  is,  in  general,  more  elegant  to  express  the  verb,  or  its  auxil- 
iary, in  connection  with  each  of  them;  as,  "Either  thou  art  to 
blame,  or  I  am.''"' — "  Neither  were  their  numbers,  nor  icas  their  des* 
tination  known." 

Ohs.  3. — The  speaker  should  generally  mention  himself  last ;  as, 
"Thou  or /must  go." — "He  then  addressed  his  discourse  to  my 
father  and  we."  But  in  confessing  a  fault  he  may  assume  the  first 
place;  as,  "/and  Robert  did  it." — J/.  Edgeicorth. 

Ohs.  4. — Two  or  more  distinct  subject  phrases  connected  by  or 
or  no)\  require  a  singular  verb;  as,  "  That  a  drunkard  should  ha 
poo7\  or  that  a  fop  should,  he  ignorant^  is  not  strange," 

Rule  XIII. — Yerbs. 

When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
they  must  either  agree  in  mood,  tense,  and  form, 
or  have  separate  nominatives  expressed  :  as,  '*  He 
himself  Jield  the  plough,  sowed  the  grain,  and  aU 


82  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  III. 

tended  tlie  reapers." — "  She  loa-s  proud,  but  she  u 
now  humble." 

Ohs.  1. — From  this  rule  there  are  many  exceptions.  "We  may, 
witliout  repeating  the  nominative,  connect  the  present,  the  perfect, 
and  the  first-future  tense  of  the  indicative  mood ;  the  corresponding 
tenses  of  the  indicative  and  ])otential  moods;  the  aflSrmative  and 
the  negative  form ;  or  the  simple  and  the  compound  form.  Bui 
the  simple  verb  must,  in  general,  be  placed  first;  a'^, 

^'  What  nothing  earthly  ghes  or  can  destroy T — Po'pe. 
"Some  ave^  and  must  ie^  greater  than  the  rest." — Id. 
'■''Plays  round  the  head,  but  comes  not  to  the  heart." — Id. 

Obs.  2. — Those  parts  which  are  common  to  several  verbs,  are 
generally  expressed  to  the  first,  and  understood  to  the  rest;  as, 
"Every  sincere  endeavour  to  amend  shall  be  assisted,  [.sAa^^  he] 
accepted,  and  \shall  he]  rewarded."— r"  Honourably  do  the  best  you 
can"  [-^ry]. — "lie  thought  as  I  did"  [/^/ti/iZ;].  — "  You  have  seen  it, 
but  I  Juive  not"  [seen  it]. — "  If  you  will  go,  I  will"  \jjo]. 

EuLE  XIV. — Participles. 

Participles  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  or  else 
are  governed  by  prepositions :  as,  "  Elizabeth's 
tutor  at  one  time  paying  her  a  visit,  found  her 
emjployed  in  reading  Plato." — Hume. 

Obs.  1. — The  word  to  which  the  participle  relates,  is  sometimes 
understood ;  a?,  '•  Granting  this  to  be  true,  what  is  to  be  inferred 
from  it?"  tliat  is,  "/,  granting  this  to  be  true,  aslc..,  what  is  to  be 
inferred  from  it?"  Some  grammarians  have  erroneously  taught 
that  such  participles  are  j^wi  absolute. 

Obs.  2. — Particij)les  have  the  same  government  as  the  verbs  from 
which  they  are  derived.  The  preposition  o/,  therefore,  should  not 
he  used  after  the  participle,  wheu  the  verb  does  not  require  it. 
Thus,  in  phrases  like  the  following,  of  is  improper  :  "  Keeping  of 
one  day  in  seven  ;" — "  By  preaching  of  repentance ;" — "  They  left 
beating  (T/'Paul." 

Obs.  3. — An  imperfect  or  a  compound  participle,  preceded  by  aa 
article,  an  adjective,  or  a  noun  or  ])ronoun  of  tiie  possessive  case, 
becomes  a  verbal  noun.,  and,  as  such,  it  cannot  govern  an  object 
after  it.  A  word  which  may  be  the  object  of  the  participle  in  its 
proper  construction  requires  the  preposition  of  to  connect  it  with 
the  verbal  noun  ;  as,  1.  (By  the  participle,)  "  By  exercising  the  body 
Ave  promote  healtli."  2.  (By  the  verbal  noun,)  "By  the  exercising 
^the  body,  health  is  jiromoted. 

Obs.  4. — Participles  that  liave  become  noiins^  may  be  used  as 
such  with  or  without  the  article.  But  we  sometimes  find  those 
which  retain  the  government  and  the  adjuncts  of  ^jr/?'^//?/jtjZ^6%  used 
as  nouns  before  or  after  verbs ;  as,  "  Exciting  such  disturbances,  is 
unlawful." — "Kebellion  is  r/i'i/?^  against  government."  This  mon- 
grel  construction  is  liable  to  ambiguity,  and  ought  to  bo  avoided. 


CHAP.    I.]  SYNTAX. —  ADVERBS.  Sh 

Obs.  5. — According  to  the  analogy  of  Gi'eek  and  Latin,  tliere  aro 
several  intransitive  verbs  after  which  the  participle  in  inr/,  relating 
to  tlie  nominative,  may  be  used  in  stead  of  the  infinitive  connected 
to  the  verb ;  as,  "  Cont'imiQ  foUoicmg  the  Lord  yonr  God." — 1  Sam.^ 
xii,  14.  Greek,  j^oreuomenoi — Latin,  sequentes.  Not  understanding 
the  nature  of  this  construction,  or  not  observing  what  verbs  admit 
of  it,  some  persons  use  the  participle  erroneously  as  the  ohject  of  the 
transitive  verb ;  and  Murray  has  very  unskillfully  laid  it  down  ns  a 
rule,  that  "Tlie  participle  with  its  adjuncts,  may  be  considered  as 
a  substantive  phrase  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposi- 
tion or  verb;"  whereas,  he  himself  on  the  preceding  pnge,  had 
cautioned  the  learner  against  treating  words  in  ing,  '*  as  if  they  were 
of  an  ampJiibious  species,  partly  nouns  and  partly  I'^/'is-;"— that  is, 
"  partly  nouns  and  partly  i)<-<-^'ticiples ;"  for,  according  to  Murray, 
participles  are  verbs. 

EuLE  XV. — Adverbs. 
Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participles,  adjectives, 
or  other  adverbs  :  as,  "  Any  passion  that  hahitU' 
ally  discomposes  our  temper,  or  unfits  us  for 
livopeiiy  discharging  the  duties  of  life,  has  most 
certainly  gained  a  very  dangerous  ascendency." 

Obs.  \. — The  adverb  yes,  expressing  a  simple  affirmation,  and  the 
adverb  no,  expressing  a  simple  negation,  are  always  independent. 
They  generally  answer  a  question  ;  and  are  equivalent  to  a  repeti- 
tion of  it,  in  the  form  of  an  affirmative  or  a  negative  proposition. 

Obs.  2. — y^o  is  sometimes  an  adverb  of  degree,  and,  as  such,  it 
can  relate  only  to  comparatives;  as,  '"''No  greater" — ''iVo  sooner." 
2so^  when  prefixed  to  a  noun,  is  an  adjective  ;  as, 

''''No  clouds,  no  vapours  intervene." — Dyer. 

Obs.d. — A  negation  in  English  admits  but  one  negative  word; 
as,  "I  could  not  wait  any  longer," — not,  "?ic>  longer."  Double 
negatives  are  vulgar. 

01,8,  4. — The  rejjetition  of  a  negative  word  or  clause,  strengthena 
the  negation;  as,  "No,  no,  no."  But  two  negatives  in  the  same 
clause,  destroy  the  negation  and  render  the  meaning  affirmative  ; 
as,  "A^(3?'did  they  ?ioi  perceive  their  evil  plight." — Milton.  That 
is,  they  did  perceive  it. 

Obs.  5. — By  the  customary  (but  faulty)  omission  of  the  negative 
before  but,  that  conjunction  has  acquired  the  adverbial  sense  of 
only  ;  and  it  may,  when  used  with  that  signification  be  called  an 
adverb.  Thus  the  text,  "  He  hath  not  grieved  me  but  in  part,"  [2 
Co?'.,  ii,  5,]  might  drop  the  negative  and  still  convey  the  same 
meaning:  "He  hath  grieved  me  but  in  part." 

Obs.  6. — We  sometimes  find  adverbs  used  after  the  manner  of 
nouns;  as,  "The  Son  of  Man  hath  not  iche7'e  to  lay  his  head." — 
Mntl.,  viii,  20.  "The  Son  of  God— was  not  yea  and  nay,  "but  in 
him  was  yea."" — 2  Cor.,  i,  19.  "An  eternal  now  does  always  last." 
-^Cowley, 


B4  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK.  [PART  III. 

EuLE  XVI. — Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions  connect  either  words  or  sentences ; 
as,  "  Let  tliere  be  no  strife,  I  pray  tliee,  between 
me  and  thee,  and  between  my  herd  in  en  and  thy 
herdmen  ;  for  we  are  brethren.*' — Bible. 

Ohs.  1. — Conjunctions  tliat  connect  particular  iconls.  generally 
join  similar  parts  of  speech,  in  a  common  dependence  on  some  other 
term.  Those  which  connect  sentences  or  clauses,  commonly  iinito 
one  to  an  other,  either  as  an  additional  affirmation,  or  as  a  condi- 
tion, a  cause,  or  an  end. 

Ohs.  2. — The  conjunction  as,  often  unites  words  that  are  in  ap- 
position ;  as,  "lie  offered  himself  as  i\  journeyman.''^ 

Ohs.  3. — As  frequently  has  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun ;  as, 
"Avoid  such  as  «r<?  vicious." — "But  to  as  many  as  received  him., 
etc." — "He  then  read  the  conditions  asfolloioy 

Ohs.  4. — The  conjunction  iliat^  is  frequently  wnc7e7*5?(9C»(Z;  as,  "We 
hoped  \tliat\  you  would  come." 

Ohs.  5. — Tiie  conjunction  thai.,  when  it  introduces  a  sentence  as 
the  subject  of  a  verb,  does  not  connect  it  to  any  other  term ;  as, 
"  That  mind  is  not  matter,  is  certain." 

Ohs.  6. — iVfter  than  or  as  expressing  a  comparison,  there  is  usu- 
ally an  clliiisis  of  some  word  or  words.  Tbe  construction  of  the 
words  employed,  may  be  known  by  supplying  the  ellipsis;  as,  "She 
is  younger  tlian  I"  \(Lni\.  — "  lie  does  nothing,  who  endeavours  to  do 
more  than  ['pAa/]  is  allowed  to  humanity." — Johnson. 

Ohs.  7. —  When  two  corresponding  conjunctions  occur,  in  their 
usual  order,  the  former  should  be  parsed  as  referring  to  the  latter, 
which  is  more  properly  the  connecting  word;  as,  ^''Neither  sun  nor 
stars  in  many  days  appeared." — Acts.,  xxvii,  20. 

Ohs.  8. — Either.,  corresponding  to  or.^  and  neither.,  corresponding 
to  nor  or  not.,  are  sometimes  transposed,  so  as  to  repeat  the  dis- 
junction or  negation  at  the  end  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  Where  then 
was  their  capacity  of  standing,  or  his  either."" — Barclay.  "  He  is 
very  tall,  but  not  too  tall  neither,'''^ — Spectator. 

Rule  XYII. — PKErosirioNS. 

Prepositions  show  the  relations  of  things:  as, 
*'  The  house  was  founded  on  a  rock." 

Ohs.  1. — In  parsing  any  ordinary  preposition,  the  learner  should 
name  the  two  terms  of  the  relation.,  and  apply  the  foregoing  rule. 
The  former  term  of  relation  is  sometimes  understood  ;  as,  [/  say] 
"In  a  word,  it  would  entirely  defeat  ray  purpose." — "For  all  shall 
know  me,  [i^eclconing]  from  the  least  to  the  greatest." — Hebrews^ 
viii,  11. 

Ohs.  2.— *When  a  preposition  introduces  the  infinitive,  a  phrase, 
or  a  sentence,  which  is  made  the  entire  subject  or  predicate  of  a 
proposition,  it  has  no  antecedent  term  of  relation ;  as,  "  To  be  good. 


CHAP.    II.]  SYNTAX. —  POSSESSIVES.  85 

is,  to  be  liappy," — "  To  be  reduced  to  poverty,  is  a  great  afBIction." 
— '•'•For  All  old  man  to  be  reduced  to  poverty,  is  a  very  great  afflic- 
tion." Dr.  Adam  remarks,  that  "  To  is  often  taken  absolutely  ;  as, 
*  To  confess  the  truth,' — '  To  proceed.'  "  But  bis  examples  ai-e  not 
appropriate;  for  wbat  be  and  many  otiier  grammarians  call  thd 
ijijijiuive  absolute,,  evidently  depends  on  sometbing  understood. 

Ohs.  3. — In  the  familiar  style,  a  preposition  governing  a  relative 
or  an  interrogative  pronoun,  is  often  separated  from  ils  object,  and 
connected  with  the  other  term  of  relation  ;  as,  "  Whom  did  bo 
speak  tof^  But  it  is  more  dignified,  and,  in  general,  more  grace- 
ful, to  place  the  preposition  before  the  pronoun ;  as, ''  To  whom  did 
be  speak  1" 

Obs.  4. — Two  prepositions  som.etimes  como  together,  so  that 
they  ouglit  not  to  be  separated  in  parsing;  as,  "Lambeth  is  ore?' 
against  AVestminster-abbey." — L.  Murray. 

"  Andy>'o??i  before  the  lustre  of  her  face." — Thomson. 

Obs.  5. — Two  separate  prepositions  have  sometimes  a  joint  refer- 
ence to  the  same  noun  ;  as,  "  He  boasted  of  and  contended  for,, 
tlie  privilege."  This  construction  is  formal,  and  scarcely  allow- 
able, excei)t  in  the  law  style.  It  is  better  to  say,  "  lie  boasted  of 
tJie  privilege,  and  contended  for  it." 

EuLE  XYIII. — ^Interjections. 

Interjections  have  no  dependent  constrnction  ; 
as,  "  O!  let  not  thy  heart  despise  me." — Johnson. 

Obs. — "Interjections  in  English  liave  no  government." — Lowth. 
"When  a  "word,  not  in  the  nominative  absolute,  is  connected  with 
an  interjection,  or  used  in  exclamation,  its  construction  generally 
depends  upon  something  understood  ,  as,  "  Ah  me  .■'" — that  is  "  Ah  I 
^it^  me  r — •'  Wo  is  vie  P' — that  is,  "  Wo  is  to  me  P' 


CHAPTER  IL  — OF  GOYERNMENT.* 
Rule  XIX. — Possessiyes. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  is 
governed  by  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  :  aSj 
"  Tlieirs  is  the  vanity,  the  learning  tliine  ; 
Touched  by  tliij  hand,  again  Home's  glories  shine." 

■  Obs.  1.— The  governing  noun  is  sometimes  understood  ;  as,  "  At 
the  Alderman's"  [Acwse.]— "  A  book  of  ?ny  brother's"  \l)oolc!i\. 

Obs.  2. — When  nouns  of  the  possessive  case,  are  connected  by 
conjunctions.,  or  put  in  apposition.,  the  sign  of  possession  fhust  al- 

*  The  arrangement  of  words  is  treated  of  ia  the  observations  under  the  Eules,  but 
more  fully  in  the  author's  lar.-er  works. 


S6  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  III. 

■ways  be  annexed  to  such,  and  such  only,  as  immediately  precede 
the  governing  noun,  expressed  or  understood ;  as,  "  John  and 
Eliza's  teacher  is  a  man  of  more  learning  than  James's,  or  An- 
drew's."— "  For  David  my  servant's  sake." 

Obs.  3. — The  apostrophe  and  s  are  sometimes  annexed  to  that  part 
of  a  compound  name^  which  is,  of  itself,  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 
"  The  captain-of-the-gnard's  Iiom^q:'— Bible.  "  The  Bard-of-Lo- 
mond's  lay  is  done." — Hogg. 

Obs.  4. — To  avoid  a  concurrence  of  hissing  sounds,  the  s  is  some- 
times omitted,  and  the  apostrophe  only  retained  ;  as,  "  For  con- 
science' sake." — "  Moses'  minister." — "  Felix'  room." — ''  Achilles' 
wrath."     But  in  prose  this  ellision  should  be  sparingly  indulged. 

Obs.  5. — The  relation  of  property  may  also  be  expressed  by  the 
preposition  of;  as,  "  The  will  of  man," — for  "  man's  will."  Of 
these  forms,  Ave  should  adopt  that  which  will  render  the  sentence 
the  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable ;  and,  by  the  ivse  of  both, 
avoid  an  unpleasant  repetition  of  either. 

EuLE  XX. — Objectives. 
Active-transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and 
preperfect  participles,  govern  the  objective  case : 
as,  ''  I  found  he?'  assisting  hwi^     '*  Having  finished 
the  tvorkj  I  submit  ^^^." 

Obs.  1. — The  objective  case  generally /olloics  the  governing  word: 
but  when  it  is  emphatic,  it  sometimes  precedes  it;  as,  "  Tina 2^oint 
they  have  gained."  A  relative  or  an  interrogativej9ro/?^w^i  is  com- 
monly placed  at  the  head  of  its  clause  ;  as,  "  Whom  will  the  meet- 
ing appoint  ?" 

Obs.  2.— Active-transitive  verbs  are  sometimes  followed  by  two 
objectives  in  cqjiJosiiion ;  as,  "Thy  saints  proclaim  thee  hingy — 
Coioper. — "  And  God  called  {\\e  Jirmament  Heaten.'''' — Bible. 

Obs.  3. — When  a  verb  is  followed  by  two  words  in  the  objective 
case,  which  are  not  in  apposition,  nor  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
one  of  them  is  governed  by  a  jyrejwsit  ion  understood,;  as,  "I  paid 
[to]  him  the  money.'''' — "They  offered  [to]  me  a  seat.'''' — "He  asked 
[of]  them  the  question." 

Obs.  4. — In  expressing  such  sentences  2^^ssivel7/,  the  object  of  the 
j^reposition  is  sometimes  erroneously  assumed  for  the  nominative: 
».3,  "  He  was  paid  i?ie  money,''''  instead  of,  "  The  money  Avas  paid  [to] 

Obs.  5. — Some  verbs  will  govern  a  Mndred  noun,  or  its  pronoun, 
but  no  other:  as,  "  He  Uced  a  virtuous  Z(/<?." — "Hear,  I  pray  you, 
this  dream  ichich  I  have  drearned.^^ — Geji.,  xxxvii,  G. 

KuLE  XXI. — Same  Cases. 
Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs, 
and  their  participles,  take  the  same  case  cffter  as 
before  them,  when  both  words  refer  to  the  same 


CHAP.    II.]  SYNTAX. —  OBJECTIVES.  81 

tiling :  as,  "  He  return'cl  n  friend^  lolio  came  ayb^." 
— "  The  child  was  named  JohnP — "  It  could  not 
be  heP 

Ols.  1. — This  is,  perhap?,  more  properly  n,  rule  of  agreement  ;  the 
■words  connected  by  the  verb,  agree  as  if  they  were  iii  apposition. 
—[See  Rule  3d] 

Ohs.  2. — In  tlie  foregoing  rule,  the  words  after  and  'before  refer 
ratlier  to  the  order  of  the  sense  and  construction,  than  to  the  plac- 
ing of  the  words.  Tlie  proper  subject  of  the  verb  is  the  nominative 
to  it,  or  before  it,  by  Rule  2d  ;  and  the  other  nominative,  howevei 
placed,  belongs  after  the  verb,  by  Rule  21st. 

Ohs.  3. — In  interrogative  sentences,  the  terms  are  usually  trana>. 
posed,  or  both  are  placed  after  the  verb  ;  as, 

"  Whence,  and  iDhat  art  fTiou,  execrable  shape  ?" — Milton. 
"Art  thou  that  traitor  angel?  art  thou  hef'' — Idem. 

Ohs.  4. — In  some  peculiar  constructions,  both  words  naturally 
come  before  the  verb  ;  as,  "  I  know  not  wJco  she  ?s."  And  they  are 
sometimes  placed  in  this  manner  by  transposition ;  as,  "  Yet  Me 
it  w." 

Rule  XXII. — Objectives. 
Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case  :  as, 

*'  Truth  and  good  are  one : 
And  beauty  dwells  t/i  tkein^  and  they  in  her^ 
With  like  participation.^^ — Akenside. 

Ohs.  1. — ^lost  of  the  prepositions  may  take  the  imp>erfect  partU 
ciple  for  their  object ;  and  some,  the  preperfect :  as,  "  On  opening 
the  trial,  they  accused  him  of  having  defrauded  them." 

Ohs.  2. — Prepositions  are  sometimes  elliptically  construed  with 
adjectives  ;  as,  in  vain,  in  secret,  at  first,  on  high; — i.  e.,  in  a  vain 
manner,  in  secret  places,  at  the  first  time,  on  high  jylaces.  In  pars- 
ing, supply  the  ellipsis.     [See  Obs.  4:th,  under  Rule  4:tli.] 

Ohs.  3, — In  a  few  instances,  prepositions  precede  adverbs  ;  as  ,at 
once,  from  above,  for  ever.  These  should  be  united  if  the  terms  are 
to  be  parsed  together  as  adverbs ;  but  we  may  suppose  the  latter 
words  to  be  used  substantively,  by  Obs.  6th,  on  Rule  15th. 

Obs.  4. — When  nouns  of  time  or  measure  are  connected  with  verbs 
or  adjectives,  the  prepositions  which  govern  them,  are  generally 
suppressed ;  as,  "  We  rode  sixty  miles  that  day  ;"  tliat  is,  "  through 
sixty  miles  on  that  day." — "  The  wall  is  ten  feet  high  ;"  that  is, 
"  high  to  ten  feet."  In  parsing,  supply  the  ellipsis.  Such  expres- 
sions as,  "A  board  of  six  feet  long," — "A  boy  of  twelve  years  old," 
—.-are  wrong.  Strike  out  of;  or  say,  "  A  board  of  six  feet  in 
length,^'' — "  A  boy  of  twelve  years  of  age.''"' 

Obs.  5. — After  the  adjectives  lihe,  near,  and  nigh,  the  preposition 
to  or  unto  is  generally  understood  ;  as,  "  It  is  like  [to  or  untol  sil- 
ver."— ''Near  [fo]  yonder  copse." — "  Kigh  \j.'o1  this  recess  " 

5 


88  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  IIL 

Ohs.  6. — The  word  icortli^  wliicli  most  grammarians  call  an  ad- 
jective, is  followed  either  by  the  objective  case  or  by  a  participle, 
supposed  to  be  governed  by  0/ understood  ;  as,  "  The  book  is  worth 
a  dollar." — "It  is  wor^/i  mentioning."  But,  after  a  careful  exam- 
ination of  the  term,  we  know  no  reason  why  worth  should  be  called 
an  adjective^  rather  than  a  prejJosUioii  governing  the  word  which 
follows  it. 

Ols.  7.— After  verbs  of  giving,  pj'ociirin-g,  and  some  others,  there 
is  usually  nn  ellipsis  of  to  or  for  before  the  objective  of  the  person; 
fts,  "  Give  \to'\  him  water  to  drink." — "Buy  [/or]  me  a  knife." 

EuLE  XXIII. — Infinitives. 

The  preposition  to  governs  tlie  infinitive  mood, 
and  commonly  connects  it  to  a  finite  verb  :  as, 
"  I  desire  to  learnt — Dr.  Adam. 

Ohs.  1. — Most  grammarians  liave  considered  the  sign  to  as  apart 
of  the  infinitive ;  and  have  referred  the  government  of  this  mood  to 
a  preceding  verb.  But  the  rule  which  they  give  is  partial  and 
often  inapplicable ;  and  their  exceptions  to  it  are  numerous  and 
puzzling.  Though  the  infinitive  is  commonlymadean  adjunct  to  som.e 
finite  verb,  yet  it  may  be  joined  to  alnDOst  all  the  other  parts  of 
speech. — [See  Instituted  of  E.  Gram.,  p.  18G.] 

Ohs.  2. — The  infinitive  sometimes  depends  on  a  y^rh  understood ; 
as,  "  To  he  candid  with  you,  [^I  confess]  I  was  in  fault." 

KuLE  XXIY. — Infinitives. 

The  active  verbs  hid^  dare^  feel.,  lieai\  let^  mahe^ 
need^  see^  and  their  participles,  usually  take  the 
infinitive  after  them,  without  the  preposition  to  ;  as, 
"  If  he  bade  thee  depart.,  how  darest  thou  stay  .^" 

Ohs.  1. — The  preposition  is  always  employed  after  the  passive 
form  of  these  verbs,  and  in  some  instances  after  the  active;  as,  "  lie 
was  heard  to  say." — "  I  cannot  see  to  do  it." — "  What  would  dare 
io  molest  him  who  might  call  on  every  side,  to  thousands  enriched 
by  his  bounty  ?" — Dr.  Johnson. 

Ohs.  2.— The  auxiliary  he  of  the  passive  infinitive  is  also  sup- 
pressed after  feel^  hear^  maJce^  and  see ;  as,  "  I  heard  the  letter  read^^ 
»ot,  "  he  read.'''' 

BuLE  XXY. — Nominative  Absolute. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  nom- 
inative, when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word : 
as,  "  He  failing.^  who  shall  meet  success  ?" — ''Your 
fathers^  where  are  they  ?  and  the  jpropliets^  do 
they  live  forever  ?" — ZecJi..^  \  5. 


CHAP.    II.]  SYNTAX. — SUBJUNCTIVES.  89 

"  Tills  saicl^  he  form'd  thee,  Adam!  thee,  O  man! 
Dust  of  the  ground." — Milton, 

Ohs.  1. — A  noun  or  pronoun  is  ]mt  absolute  in  the  noniinatire, 
under  the  {oWov/'mg/our  circumstauces  : — 

1.  When,  with  a  participle^  it  is  used  to  express  a  cause,  or  a 
concomitant  fact ;  as, 

"  Thou  looTiing  on^ 

Shame  to  be  overcome  or  overreach'd, 
Would  utmost  vigor  raise." — Milton. 

2.  "When,  hj  a  direct  address^  it  is  put  in  the  second  person,  and 
set  off  from  the  verb;  as,  "At  length,  Seged^  reflect  and  be  wise." 

3.  When,  hy  pleonasm^  it  is  abruptly  introduced,  for  the  sake  of 
emphasis;  as,  "^ethat  is  in  the  city,  famine  and  pestilence  shall 
devour  him." — "  Gad^  a  troop  sliall  overcome  him." — ''  The  north 
and  the  south,  thou  hast  created  them." — BihU. 

4.  When,  by  mere  exclamation,  it  is  used  without  address,  and 
•without  other  words  expressed  or  implied  to  give  it  construction  ; 
as, 

"  Oh !  deep  enchanting  ^9?'e?«<:75  to  repose, 
The  dawn  of  bliss,  the  twilight  of  our  woes!" — CampT)ell. 

Ohs.  2. — The  nominative  put  absolute  with  a  participle,  is  equiv- 
alent to  a  dependent  clause  commencing  with  wli^n,  while,  if^ 
iince,  or  because;  as,  "I  being  a  child," — equal  to,  "  When  I  was  a 
child." 

Obs.  3. — The  participle  being  is  often  understood  after  nouns  or 
pronouns  put  absolute  ;   as, 

"Alike  in  ignorance,  his  reason  [ ]  such, 

Whether  he  thinks  too  little  or  too  much." — Pope. 

Obs.  4. — All  nouns  preceded  by  an  article,  are  in  the  third  person; 
and,  in  exclamatory  phrases,  such  nouns  sometimes  appear  to  have 
no  determinable  construction  :  as,  "  O  the  depth  of  the  riches  both 
of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God !" — Rom.,  xi,  32. 

Obs.  5. — The  case  of  nouns  used  in  exclamations,  or  in  mottoes 
and  abbreviated  sayings,  often  depends,  or  may  be  conceived  to  de- 
pend, on  something  luiderstood  ;  and  when  their  construction  can 
be  satisfactorily  explained  on  the  principles  of  ellipsis,  they  are  not 
put  absolute.  The  following  examples  may  perhaps  be  resolved  in 
this  manner,  though  the  expressions  will  lose  much  of  their  vivac- 
ity: "A  horse!  a  horse!  my  hingdom  for  a  liorse !" — Shale: 
"  Heaps  upon  heaps," — "  Shin  for  skin," — "  An  eye  for  an  eye,  and 
a  tooth  for  a  tooth,"— "  i)ay  after  day,"—"  World  without  end."— 
Bible. 

HuLE  XXYI. — Subjunctives. 

A  future  contmgency  is  best  expressed  by  a 
verb  in  the  Subjunctive  present;  and  a  mere 
supposition,  with  indefinite  time,  by  a  verb  in  the 


90  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR.  [PART  III. 

Subjunctive  imperfect;  bu':  a  conditional  cir- 
cumstance assumed  as  a  fact,  requires  the  Indi- 
cative Mood:  as  "If  thou  forsake  him,  he  will 
cast  thee  off  forever." — "If  it  were  not  so,  I 
would  have  told  you." — "If  thou  loent^  nothing 
would  be  gained." — "Though  he  is  poor,  he  is 
contented." 


CHAPTER  III.— EXAMPLES  OF  FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Designed  to  exercise  the  pupil  in  aijplying  jw^-acificaZZ?/   the  Rules  of 
Syntax  liable  to  ie  violated.     To  he  corrected  orally. 

Lesson  I. — Under  Rule  IL — Nominatives. 

1.  Thee  must  have  been  idle. 

[FoRMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  thee  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  and  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  must  have  been.  But, 
according  to  Rule  2d,  "  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  w^hich  is  the  subject 
of  a  finite  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case."  Therefore,  thee 
should  be  thou;  thus,  Thou  must  have  been  idle.] 

2.  Him  that  loiters  by  the  waj^,  may  be  belated. 
S.  Them  that  labour,  should  be  rewarded. 

4.  Us  who  are  spared,  ought  to  be  thankful. 

5.  You  and  me  are  equally  concerned. 

6.  Are  not  thee  and  him  related? 

7.  My  brother  is  older  than  me. 

8.  He  cannot  read  so  well  as  thee. 

9.  Who  fastened  the  door  ?     Me. 
10.  Whom  do  you  suppose  did  it? 

Lesson  H. — Under  Rule  HI. — Apposition. 

1.  I  have  heard  from  my  cousin,  she  that  was  here  last  week. 

[FoRMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  she  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case,  and  is  used  to  explain  the  nonn  cousin  which  is  in  the 
objective  case.  But,  according  to  Rule  3d,  "  A  noun  or  a  personal 
pronoun,  used  to  explain  a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by 
apposition,  in  the  same  case."  Therefore,  she  should  be  her  ;  thuS( 
I  have  heard  from  my  cousin,  her  that  was  here  last  week.] 

2.  That  was  the  tailoress,  her  that  made  my  clothes. 

3.  I  saw  your  friend,  he  that  was  here  last  winter. 

4.  Dennis,  the  gardener,  him  that  gave  me  the  tulips,  has  Drom' 
Jsed  me  a  piony. 

Lesson  KL— Under  Rule  Y. — Pronouns. 
1.  Ought  not  every  man  to  b«  careful  of  their  reputation  ? 


CHAP.  III.]  BTNTAX. — CORRECTING.  91 

[FoRMrxE. — ISTot  proper,  because  tlie  pronoun  their  is  of  the 
plural  number,  and  does  not  correctly  represent  its  antecedent  noun 
man^  which  is  of  the  third  person,  singular,  masculine.  But,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  5th,  "  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent, 
or  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person,  number,  and 
gender."  Therefore,  their  sliould  be  his;  thus,  Ought  not  everj 
man  to  be  careful  of  his  reputation  ?] 

2.  Every  one  must  judge  of  their  own  feelings. — Byron. 

3.  We  may  be  displeased  with  a  person  without  hating  them. 

4.  1  poured  water  on  the  embers  to  quench  it. 

5.  Ask  hsr  for  the  scissors,  and  bring  it  to  me. 

6.  He  had  sown  the  oats,  and  it  had  alreac/  sprung  up. 

Liissox  IV. — Under  Rule  YI. — Proxouxs. 

1.  The  jniy  will  be  confided  until  it  agrees  on  a  verdict. 

[FoEMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  it  is  of  the  singu- 
lar number,  and  does  not  correctly  represent  its  antecedent  jury, 
which  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality.  But, 
according  to  Rule  6th,  "  When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noui\ 
conveying  the  idea  of  plurality,  the  pronoun  must  agree  with  it,  in 
the  plural  number,"  Therefore,  ii  should  be  they;  thus,  The  jury 
will  be  confined  until  they  agree  on  a  verdict.] 

2.  The  people  will  not  relinquish  its  rights. 
8.  The  clergy  had  declared  its  intention. 
4,  The  party  disagreed  among  itself. 

6.  The  committee  were  unanimous,  and  this  is  its  awara. 
6.  The  company  then  renewed  its  claims. 

Lessox  V. — UxDEE  Rule  YII. — Proxouxs. 

1.  Discontent  and  sorrow  manifested  itself  in  his  countenance. 

[FoRMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  itself  is  of  the 
singular  number,  and  does  not  correctly  represent  its  two  anteced- 
ents, discontent  and  sorrow^  which  are  connected  by  and^  and 
taken  conjointly.  But,  according  to  Rule  7th,  "  When  a  pronoun 
has  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and^  it  must  agree  with 
them  in  the  plural  number,"  Therefore,  itself  q\\o\\\(\.  be  themselves , 
thus.  Discontent  and  sorrow  manifested  themselves  in  his  counten^ 
ance.] 

2.  Av  y[(\.  lightness  and  frivolity  :  it  is  allied  to  folly. 
8.  Truth  ard  honesty  cannot  fail  of  its  reward, 

4.  Learni'^.g  and  good  sense  always  adorn  its  possessor. 

„.  Bauis'i  envy  and  strife,  lest  it  utterly  destroy  your  peace. 

C.  Cherish  love  and  unity  :  it  is  the  life  of  society. 

Lessox  VI. — UxDER  Rule  VIII. — Proxouxs. 
1.  Neither  wealth  nor  honour  can  satisfy  their  votaries. 
[Fokmule. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  their  is  of  the  pla» 
ral  number,  and  does  not  correctly  represent  its  two  antecedent? 


92  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PART  III. 

wealth  and  honour^  wliicli  are  connected  by  nor^  and  taken  dis- 
junctively. But,  according  to  Rule  8th,  "When  a  pronoun  has 
two  or  more  singular  antecedents  connected  by  or  or  noi\  it  must 
agree  witli  them  in  the  singular  number."  Therefore,  their  should 
£)e  its  ;  thus,  Neither  wealth  nor  honour  can  satisfy  its  votaries.] 

2.  Can  justice  or  truth  change  their  nature? 

3.  One  or  the  other  must  relinquish  their  claim, 

4.  Neither  the  lion  nor  the  tiger  will  bow  their  neck  to  the  yoko. 

5.  The  horse  or  the  ox  will  lend  thee  their  strengtli. 

6.  Neither  my  father  nor  my  master  would  give  their  confi^nt. 

Lesson  VII. — Under  Rule  IX. — Verbs. 

1.  You  was  kindly  received. 

[FoRMULE. — ^Not  proper,  because  the  verb  teas  received  is  of  the 
singular  number,  and  does  not  agree  with  its  nominati'^  e  you^  which 
is  plural.  But,  according  to  Rule  9th,  "  A  finite  ve'  b  must  agree 
with  its  subject,  or  nominative,  in  person  and  numbT."  Therefore, 
teas  received  should  be  were  received;  thus,  You  were  lindly  re' 
ceived.] 

2.  Appearances  is  often  deceptive. 

3.  The  propriety  of  such  restrictions  are  doubtful. 

4.  There  is  windows  on  three  sides  of  the  room. 

5.  Thou  sees  the  difficulties  with  which  I  am  surrounded. 

6.  What  does  all  my  exertions  avail  ? 

Lesson  VIII. — Under  Rule  X. — Verbs. 

1.  The  people  rejoices  in  that  which  should  cause  sorrow. 

[FoRMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  verb  rejoices  is  of  the  singu- 
lar number,  and  does  not  correctly  agree  witli  the  nominative 
people^  which  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality. 
But,  according  to  Rule  10th,  "  When  the  nominative  is  a  collective 
noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality,  the  verb  must  agree  with  it 
in  the  plural  number."  Therefore,  rejoices  should  be  rejoice;  thus, 
The  people  rejoice  in  that  which  should  cause  sorrow.] 

2.  The  nobility  was  assured  that  he  would  not  interpose. 
8.  The  committee  has  attended  to  their  appointment. 

4.  The  majority  was  disposed  to  adopt  the  measure. 

5.  All  the  world  is  spectators  of  your  conduct. 

6.  Blessed  is  the  people  that  know  the  joyful  sound.— BilleL 

Lesson  IX. — Under  Rule  Xf. — Verbs. 

1.  Industry  and  frugality  leads  to  wealth. 

[Formule. — Not  proper,  because  the  verb  leads  is  of  the  singular 
number,  and  does  not  correctly  agree  with  its  two  nominatives, 
industry  and  frugality^  which  are  connected  by  and,  and  taken 
conjointly.  But,  according  to  Rule  11th,  "  When  a  verb  has  two 
or  more  nominatives  connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  tliem 
in  the  plural  number."  Therefore,  leads  should  be  lead;  Urns,  In- 
dustry and  frugality  lead  to  wealth."] 


CHAP.  III.]  SYNTAX. — COREECTINa.  93 

2.  Temperance  and  exercise  preserves  health. 

3.  My  love  and  afiectioii  towards  thee  remains  unaltered, 

4.  Wealth,  honour,  and  happiness,  forsakes  the  indolent. 

5.  My  flesh  and  my  lieart  faiieth, — Bible. 

6.  In  all  his  works,  there  is  sprightliness  and  vigour. 

Lesson  X. — Under  Rule  XII. — Yehbs. 

1.  Ignorance  or  negligence  have  caused  this  mistake. 

[FoKMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  verb  Tiate  caused  is  of  the 
plural  number,  and  does  not  correctly  agree  with  its  two  nomina- 
tives, ignorance  and  negligence^  which  are  connected  by  or,  and 
taken  disjunctively.  But,  according  to  Rule  12th,  "  When  a  verb 
has  two  or  more  singular  nominatives  connected  by  or  or  nor^  it 
must  agree  with  them  in  the  singular  number."  Therefore,  have 
caused  should  be  has  caused;  thus,  Ignorance  or  negligence  hoA 
caused  this  mistake.] 

2.  ITo  axe  or  hammer  have  ever  awakened  an  echo  here. 

3.  What  the  heart  or  the  imagination  dictate,  flows  readily. 

4.  Neither  authority  nor  analogy  support  such  ?.a  opinion. 

5.  Either  ability  or  inclination  were  wanting. 

6.  He  comes — nor  want  nor  cold  his  course  delay. — Johnson. 

Lesson  XL — ^Undee  Rule  XIII. — ^Veebs. 

1.  They  would  neither  go  in,  nor  suffered  others  to  enter. 

[FoEMULE. — ^Not  proper,  because  the  verb  suffered^  which  is  in 
the  indicative  mood,  is  connected,  without  repetition  of  the  nomin- 
ative, to  would  go^  which  is  in  the  potential  mood.  But,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  13th,  "When  verbs  are,  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
they  must  either  agree  in  raood,  tense,  and  form,  or  have  separate 
nominatives  expressed."  Therefore,  suffered  should  be  icould suffer ; 
(iDould  understood  ;)  thus,  They  would  neither  go  in,  nor  suffer 
others  to  enter.] 

2.  Does  not  he  waste  his  time,  and  neglects  his  lessons? 

3.  Did  not  she  send,  and  gave  you  this  information  ? 

4.  Their  honours  are  departing,  and  come  to  p,n  end. 

6.  He  had  retired  to  his  farm,  and  appeared  to  be  happy  there. 
6.  He  was  elected  to  the  office,  but  would  not  serve. 

Lesson  XII. — Under  Rule  XX. — Objectives  . 

1.  She  I  shall  more  readily  forgive. 

[Foemule. — ^Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  she  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case,  and  is  tlie  object  of  the  active-transitive  verb  shall 
forgive.  But,  according  to  Rule  20th,  "Active-transitive  verbs, 
and  their  imperfect  and  preperfect  participles,  govern  the  objective 
case."  Therefore,  sAd  should  be  her  ;  tims,  Her  I  shall  more  readily 
forgive.] 

2.  Thou  only  have  I  chosen. 


94  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PAilT  IIY. 

8.  "Who  shall  we  send  on  this  errand  ? 

4.  My  father  allowed  my  brother  and  I  to  accompany  hira. 

5.  He  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 

6.  Who  should  I  meet  but  my  old  friend ! 

Lesson  XIII.— Undee  Rule  XXI. — Same  Cases. 

1.  "We  did  not  know  that  it  was  him. 

[FoEMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  Tiim^  which  follows 
the  neuter  verb  was^  is  in  the  objective  case,  and  does  not  agree 
with  the  pronoun  it^  which  precedes  the  verb,  in  the  nominative ; 
both  words  referring  to  the  same  thing.  But,  according  to  Rule 
21st,  "  Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  and  their 
participles,  take  the  same  case  after  as  before  them,  when  both 
words  refer  to  the  same  thing."  Therefore,  him  should  be  lie  ;  thus. 
"We  did  not  know  that  it  was  he.'] 

2.  "We  thought  it  was  thee. 

8.  1  would  act  the  same  part,  if  I  were  him. 

4.  It  could  not  have  been  her. 

5.  It  is  not  me  that  he  is  angry  with. 

6.  They  believed  it  to  be  I. 

Lesson  XIY. — Under  Rule  XXII. — Objectives. 

1.  It  rests  with  thou  and  me  to  decide. 

[FoRMULE. — ^Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  thou  is  in  the  nom' 
inative  case,  and  is  governed  by  the  preposition  with.  But,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  22cl,  '^  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case." 
Therefore,  thou  should  be  thee ;  tlius,  It  rests  with  thee  and  me  to 
decide.] 

2.  Let  that  remain  a  secret  between  you  and  I. 
8.  I  lent  the  book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  who. 

4.  Let  no  quarrel-  occur  among  we  three  fellows. 

5.  Who  did  he  inquire  for  ?     Thou. 

6.  From  he  that  is  needy,  turn  not  away. 

Lesson  XV. — Under  Rule  XXIII. — Infinitives. 

1.  Ought  these  things  be  tolerated? 

[FoRMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  infinitive  le  tolerated.,  is  not 
preceded  by  the  preposition  to.  But,  according  to  Rule  23d,  "  The 
preposition  to  governs  the  infinitive  mood,  and  commonly  connects 
It  to  a  finite  verb."  To  should  be  inserted;  thus,  Ought  these 
things  to  be  tolerated  ?] 

2.  Please  excuse  my  son's  absence. 
8.  Cause  every  man  go  out  from  me. 

4.  Forbid  them  enter  the  garden. 

5.  Do  you  not  perceive  it  move  ? 

6.  Allow  others  discover  your  merit.  • 

7.  He  was  seen  go  in  at  that  gate. 


CHAP.  III.]  SYNTAX. — CORRECTING.  95 

Lesson  XVI. — Under  Rule  XXIV.— Infinitiyes. 

1.  They  need  not  to  call  upon  her. 

[FoRMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  preposition  to  is  inserted 
before  call^  wliich  follows  the  active  verb  Jieed.  But,  according  to 
Rule  24th,  "The  active  verbs  hid^  dare^feel^  hear^  let^  maTce^  need, 
see^  and  their  participles,  usually  take  the  infinitive  after  them, 
without  the  preposition  to;'  Therefore,  to  should  be  omitted j* 
i^us,  "  They  need  not  call  upon  her.] 

2.  I  felt  a  chilling  sensation  to  creep  over  me. 
8.  I  have  heard  him  to  mention  the  subject. 
4.  Bid  the  boys  to  come  in  immediatel}^ 

6.  I  dare  to  say  he  has  not  got  home  yet. 
6.  Let  no  rash  promise  to  be  made. 

Lesson  XVII. — Under  Rule  XXV. — Nom.  Absolute. 

1.  Him  having  ended  his  discourse,  the  assembly  dispersed. 

[Formule. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  him,  whose  case 
depends  on  no  other  word,  is  in  the  objective  case.  But,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  25th,  "A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the 
nominative,  when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word."  Therefore, 
him  should  be  he;  thus,  He  having  ended  his  discourse,  the  assem- 
bly dispersed.] 

2.  Me  being  young,  they  deceived  me. 

8.  Them  refusing  to  comply,  I  withdrew. 

4.  The  child  is  lost;  and  me,  whither  shall  I  go? 

6.  Thee  being  present,  he  would  not  tell  what  he  knew. 

6.  Arise,  and  gird  thyself,  O  thee  tliat  sleepest! 

7.  O  wretched  us!  shut  from  the  light  of  hope! 

8.  "Thee  too!  Brutus,  my  son!"  cried  Caisar  overcome. 

9.  But  him,  the  cliieftain  of  tliem  all. 
His  sword  hangs  rusting  on  the  wall. 

Lesson  XVIII. — Under  Rule  XXVL — Subjunctives. 

1 .  He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  repents. 

[Formule. — Not  proper,  because  the  verb  repents,  which  is  used 
to  express  a  ^.uture  contingenc}',  is  in  the  indicative  mood.  But, 
according  to  Rule  26th,  "  A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed 
by  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive,  present."  Therefore,  I'epents  should 
be  repent ;  thus,  He  will  not  be  pardoned  unless  he  repent^ 

2.  I  shall  walk  out  in  the  afternoon,  unless  it  rains. 

3.  If  thou  feltest  as  I  do,  we  should  soon  decide. 

4.  I  knew  thou  wert  not  slow  to  hear. 

5.  Let  him  take  heed  lest  he  falls. 

6.  If  thou  castest  me  off,  I  shall  be  miserable. 

V.  I  believed,  whatever  was  the  issue,  ail  would  be  well. 
8.  If  ho  was  an  impostor,  he  must  have  been  detected. 


96  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  III. 


CHAPTER  lY.— ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING-. 

Two  or  more  subjects,  connected  bj  a  conjunc- 
tion, may  belong  to  the  same  predicate;  or  two 
or  more  connected  predicates  may  have  the  same 
subject.  In  this  case,  the  sentence  should  be  con- 
sidered simple^  with  a  compouyid  subject  or  predi- 
cate. 

Phrases  are  either  simple^  complex,  or  com- 
pound. 

A  phrase,  containing  a  phrase  as  an  adjunct  of 
its  principal  part,  is  called  a  complex  phrase;  as, 
''By  tiie  bounty  of  Heaven. ^^ 

A  phrase,  composed  of  two  or  more  coordinate 
phrases,  is  called  a  compound  phrase;  as,  ^'•Stoop- 
ing dovon  and  looking  in.''' 

EXEECISK   I. 

Analyze  tlie  following  sentencea^  jjointing  out  the  comj^oinid  suh- 
jects  and  predicates^  and  distinguishing  the  di^erent  kinds  of  pfirascs. 

Example. — "  The  Gauls,  a  barbarous  people,  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury before  Christ,  invaded  Italy  and  burned  Rome." 

'i'^^is  is  a  simple  declnrative  sentence,  having  a  compound  predicate.  The  subject  is 
Gauls;  the  compound  predicate  is  iiivaded  and  burned;  the  objects  are  lUdt/ 
and  Rome. 

The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  the  and  people,  a  and  barbarous  being  adjuncts  of 
people;  the  adjunct,  of  the  predicate,  is  the  complex  adverbial  phrase,  in  the  fourth 
century  before  Christ;  the  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is,  century,  the  adjuncts  of 
■which  tixe'the,  fourth,  and  the  simple  adjective  phrase,  before  Christ;  neither  of  the 
objects  has  any  adjuncts. 

Temperance  and  exercise  preserve  the  health  both  of  the  body 
and  the  mind.  The  wild  animals  turned,  looked,  and  ran  away. 
The  faculty  of  reasoning  accurately,  is  possessed  by  very  few.  The 
sun  was  pouring  its  meridian  rays  upon  the  Arabian  desert,  when 
a  caravan  lialted  for  refreshment  and  repose.  Obidah,  the  son  of 
Abensina,  left  the  caravansary  early  in  the  morning,  and  pursued 
his  journey  through  the  plains  of  Hindoostan.  I  went  by  the  field 
of  the  slothful,  and  by  the  vineyard  of  the  man  void  of  understand- 
ing. The  Puritans  rejected  with  contempt  the  ceremonious  homage 
of  other  sects.  Afflicted  by  this  spectacle  of  suffering,  he  proffered 
immediate  relief.  By  what  authority  doest  thou  these  things  ?  In 
the  autumn  of  1783,  the  war  of  the  Revolution  had  closed  with 
glory  to  the  several  States.  The  creation  is  a  grand  museum  filled 
with  wonders,  and  beauties,  and  glories.     Fine  writing  is  generally 


CHAP.  IV.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  97 

the  effect  of  spontaneous  thoughts  and  a  labored  style.  A  large, 
branching,  aged  oak  is,  perhaps,  the  most  venerable  of  all  inanimate 
objects.  We  should  forgive  freely,  but  forget  rarely.  Get  justly, 
use  soberly,  distribute  cheerfully,  and  live  contentedly. 

PARSmG. 

After  analyzing  each  of  the  ahove  sentences^  let  the  pvpil  le  required 
to  distinguish  tJie  different  jjai'ts  of  sjyecch,  and  their  classes  ;  to 
mention  tJieir  modifications  in  order  ;  to  point  out  their  relation^ 
agreeinent^  or  government ;  and  to  avvly  the  Rules  of  Syntax. 
Thus:-- 

EXAMPLE    PAESED. 

"  Man's  highest  interest  consists  in  virtue." 

Marl's  Is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  siniriilar  number,  masculine  gender,  and 
possessive  case :  and  is  governed  by  interest;  according  to  the  Hide  ]9th, 
wliich  says,  "  A  noun  or  .1  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  is  governed  by  the 
name  of  the  thing  possessed." 

Highest  \^  a,  common  adjective,  of  the  superlative  defrrec;  compared  higli,  higJiev, 
highei^t :  and  relates  to  interest ;  according  to  iiule  4tb,  ■which  says,  "Adjec- 
tives relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns." 

Interest  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and 
nominative  case  :  and  is  the  subject  of  consists  ;  according  to  IJule  2d,  wJiich 
says,  "  A  noun  or  pronoun  vhich  is  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb,  must  be  in 
the  nominative  case." 

Consists  is  a  regular  neuter  verb,  from  consist,  consisted,  consisting,  consisted; 
found  inthe  indicative  mood,  jiresent  tense,  third  person,  and  singular  num- 
ber; and  agrees  with  its  nominative  interest;  according  to  liule  9th,  which 
Bays,  "  A  finite  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nominalive,  in  person  and 
number." 

/?i  is  a  i)reposition  :  and  shows  the  relation  between  virtue  and  consists;  according 
to  Rule  17th,  which  says,  "Prepos^itions  show  the  relation  of  things."  Be- 
cause the  phrase  171  virtue  modifies  consists. 

Virtue  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gdider, 
and  obji'ctive  case:  and  is  governed  by  in;  according  to  Eule  22d,  which 
says,  "Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case." 

ExEKCisE  ir. — The  Subject  Phkase. 

In  this,  and  each  of  the  folloicing  exercises,  let  the  pujjil  de  required 
to  analyze  according  to  the  example.,  and  p)o,rse  as  in  the  preceding 
exercise. 
Example. — "  To  be  at  once  a  rake  and  glory  in  the  character, 

discovers  a  bad  disposition  apd  a  bad  heart." 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence,  having  a  compound  pubject.  The  subject  is 
composed  of  the  two  coordinate  phrases.  To  he  at  on-ce  a  rake  and  to  glory  in  the 
c7t</.'YK-^pr,  connected  by  atid :  the  principal  part  of  the  first  phrase  is  to  he;  and 
its  adiuncts  are  the  adverbial  phrase  at  once  and  the  indefinite  attribute  rake,  (sea 
Obs.  4,  page  66,)  modified  by  a;  the  principal  part  of  the  second  phraso  is,  to  glory  ; 
an.l  its  adjunct  is  the  simple  adverbial  phrase,  iyi  the  character,  the  princijial  j.art 
being  modified  by  the.  The  predicate  of  the  sentence  is  discovers  ;  the  objects,  dis- 
position and  heart,  each  modified  by  the  adjuncts  a  and  had. 

To  do  good  to  all  men,  is  the  duty  of  a  Christian.  Riding  on 
horseback  is  a  beneficial  exercise.  To  live  soberly,  righteously,  and 
piously,  comprehends  the  whole  of  our  duty.  To  be  totally  indif- 
ferent to  praise  or  censure,  is  a  real  defect  in  character.  To  have 
remained  calm  under  such  provocations,  was  a  proof  of  remarkable 


98  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PART  IV. 

self-control.  To  be  continually  subject  to  tlio  breath  of  slander, 
will  tarnish  the  purest  reputation.  To  perceive  nothing  or  not  to 
perceive,  is  the  same.  To  profess  regard  and  act  injuriously,  dis- 
covers a  base  mind.  To  know  one's  own  ignorance,  is  generally 
conducive  to  improvement.  To  be  happy  without  the  approval  of 
conscience,  is  impossible.     To  err  is  human  ;   to  forgive,  divine. 

Exercise  III. — The  Object  Phrase. 

Example. — "Pope  professed   to  have  learned  his  poetry  from 
Dryden." 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  Pope;  the  predicate  is  pro- 
fessed; the  object  is  the  complex  phrase,  to  liave  learned  his  poetry  from  Dryden. 
The  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is,  to  have  learned;  its  adjuncts,  the  object  poetry 
and  the  wimple  adverbial  i>hrase//'o«2.  Dryden;  poetry  is  modified  by  the  adjunct A^«. 
I^either  the  subject  nor  the  predicate  of  the  sentence,  has  any  adjuncts. 

"We  should  always  desire  to  obey  the  dictates  of  conscience.  Ho 
wlio  desires  to  be  happy,  should  cultivate  integrity  and  self-respect. 
We  swear  to  preserve  the  blessings  for  which  our  fathers  toiled  and 
bled.  The  teacher  enjoined  upon  his  pupils,  to  be  industrious  in 
study,  to  cultivate  a  virtuous  disposition,  and  especially  to  love 
truth.  Seek  earnestly  to  improve  your  talents.  Cease  to  do  evil, 
learn  to  do  well.  I  dare  not  proceed  so  hastily,  lest  I  give  offence. 
Never  attempt  to  conceal  a  fault,  but  confess  it  freely.  AVe  should 
love  to  do  what  God  commands.  Artaxerxes  being  thus  entreated, 
could  not  refuse  to  pardon  him.  By  the  faults  of  others,  wise  men 
learn  to  correct  their  own.  He  began  again  to  teach  by  the 
seaside. 

Exercise  IY. — The  Attribfte  Phrase. 
Example. — "  His  object  was  not  to  surprise  his  readers." 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  object,  modified  by  the  ad- 
junct Ids;  the  predicate  is  wr<A-,  modified  by  the  adverb  not;  the  attribute  is  the 
phrase  to  .ni?'pri.se  his  readers ;  the  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  to  surpriae  ;  ita 
adjunct,  the  object  readers,  modified  by  fiis. 

The  object  of  punishment  should  be,  to  reform  the  wicked.  To 
be  good  is  to  be  happy.  To  surrender  without  making  resistance, 
would  be,  to  submit  to  a  base  and  inglorious  death.  To  attempt 
further  to  illustrate  so  plain  a  truth,  Avould  be  only  to  spend  time 
uselessly.  To  smile  on  those  whom  we  should  censure,  is  to  bring 
guilt  ui)on  ourselves.  The  tendency  of  evil  is,  to  make  men  miser- 
able. Tiie  highest  art  of  the  mind  of  man,  is,  to  possess  itself  with 
tranquillity  in  the  hour  of  danger.  He  was  known  to  be  kept  in 
close  custody  at  Oxford.  My  power  is  to  advise,  not  to  compel. 
Is  life  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery?  The 
ship  is  to  sail  to-morrow.  His  conduct  was  greatly  to  be  admired. 
My  friend  is  in  very  good  health.  The  train  might  liave  been  off 
the  track.  The  vessel  was  behind  its  usual  time.  To  submit  to 
insult,  is,  to  give  occasion  for  it.  The  silver  age  is  reckoned  to  havo 
commenced  at  the  death  of  Augustus. 


CHAP.  IV.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING.  99 

ExEKCiSE  Y. — Adjective  and  Adverbial  Phrases. 

Example. — "  Where  there  is  no  knowledge  of  the  haw,  a  man 
aoiing  in  opposition  to  it,  cannot  be  properly  said  to  trans- 
gress it." 

Tliis  is  a  complex  declarativo  sentence.  The  principal  clause  Is,  a  man  acting  in 
opjiosition  to  it,  cannot  be  j)roperlii  said  to  traimgre'^s  it;  the  depcndeut  clause  is, 
where  there  is  no  Jcnoicledge  of  the  law.    The  connective  is  where. 

The  subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  man;  the  predicate,  can  he  said;  the  attri- 
bute, to  transgress  it.  The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  a,  and  the  complex  adjectiro 
phrase,  a -ting  in  oppositioii  to  it;  the  princijtal  part  of  the  phra.-e  is  acting,  modi- 
fied by  the  complex  adverbial  phrase,  in  opposition  to  it,  the  principal  part  of  which 
is  opposition,  modified  by  the  simi)le  adjective  phrase,  to  it.  The  adjuncts  of  tho 
predicate  are  not  aaA properlij,  and  the  dependent  clause ;  the  adjunct  of  the  attribute 
is  tlie  object  it. 

The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  Icnoxdedge  ;  the  predicate  is  is.  The  ad- 
JTincts  of  the  subject  are  oio  and  the  simple  adjective  phrase,  of  the  law  ;  the  ailjunc*" 
of  the  predicate  is  Vure. 

•  Genius  lias  often  been  discovered  in  persons  of  a  very  humble 
condition  in  life.  In  summer  the  fervid  sun  darting  his  direct  rays, 
oppresses  us  with  heat.  f-A  man  of  integrity  will  never  listen  to 
any  reason  against  conscience.  The  ambition  to  excel  was  manifest 
in  all  his  acts.  An  old  man  was  busily  emi)loyed  in  planting  and 
ingrafting  an  apple-tree.  We  should  always  strive  to  do  right. 
Eliza's  benevolence  in  relieving  the  poor  was  much  to  be  com- 
mended. Christians  should  exhibit  an  ability  to  endure  the  various 
vicissitudes  of  life.  Newton's  ideas  regarding  the  nature  of  comets, 
were  quite  fanciful.  Honors  bestowed  on  the  ihustrious  dead,  have 
in  them  no  admixture  of  envy.  A  habit  of  sincerity  in  acknowl- 
edging faults,  is  a  guard  against  committing  them. 

Exercise  Vi. — The  Explanatory  Phrase. 
Example. — "  It  is  a  Christian's  vocation  to  do  good  to  all." 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  it;  the  predicate  is  is;  tha 
attribute  is  vocation.  The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  explanatory  phrase,  to  do 
good  to  all  ;  the  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  to  do,  its  adjuncts  are  the  object 
goo'i  and  the  simple  adverbial  phrase,  to  all.  The  adjunct  of  the  attribute  is  Chris- 
tian s,  modilied  by  a. 

■v'lt  is  a  great  crime  to  decejve  the  innocent  and  confiding.  It  is 
good  to  sing  praises 'unto  our  God.  "~ It  is  impossible  to  instruct 
those  who  have  no  desire  to  learn.^It  is  of  little  use  to  form  plans 
of  life.  It  deserves  our  best  skill,  to  inquire  into  those  rules,  by 
which  we  may  guide  our  judgment.  It  is  a  sign  of  great  prudence, 
to  be  willing  to  receive  instruction.  It  is  the  duty  of  public  speak- 
ers, in  addressing  any  popular  assembly,  to  be  previously  masters 
of  their  subject.  It  pleased  Darius  the  King,  to  set  over  the  king- 
dom a  hundred  and  twenty  princes,  who  should  be  over  the  whole 
kingdom. 

Exercise  YII. — The  Independent  Phrase. 

Example  1. — "Night  coming  on,  the  battle  was  discontinued." 

.This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  battle ;  the  predicate  is,  wa» 
discontinued.  The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the.  Kight  coming  on,  is  an  indeppnd' 
en'  phrase  ;  its  principal  part  is  night,  the  adjunct  of  which  is  the  participle  coming^ 
modified  by  on. 


100  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  IV. 

Example  2. — "  To  speak  candidly,  I  did  not  quite  understand  the 
subject." 

A  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  I;  the  predicate  is  did  understo/nd ; 
the  object  is  subject.  The  adjuncts  of  the  predicate  are  not  and  quite  ;  that  of  tho 
object  is  the.  To  ^peak  candidly  is  an  independent  phrase  ;  the  principal  part  beiu<» 
to  speak,  moditied  by  candidly.  " 

To  confess  tlie  truth,  I  ■was  very  mucli  in  fault.  Generally  speak- 
ing, the  conduct  of  that  man  is  unexceptionable.  Theron  and  As- 
pasia  took  a  morning  walk  into  the  tields ;  their  spirits  cheered, 
and  their  imaginations  lively  ;  gratitude  glowing  in  their  hearts, 
and  the  whole  creation  smiling  around  them.  The  Senate  con- 
sented to  the  creation  of  tribunes  of  tho  people,  Appius  alone  pro- 
testing against  the  measure.  To  be  plain  with  you,  your  conduct  is 
very  much  to  be  censured.  Considering  the  circumstances,  the  de- 
gree of  success  which  you  liave  attained,  is  highly  deserving  of 
commendation.  All  obstacles  having  been  overcome,  he  finally 
reached  the  goal  of  his  ambition.  My  dear  friend,  how  glad  I  am 
to  see  you !  Pause  for  a  while,  ye  travellers  of  earth,  to  contem- 
plate the  universe  around  you !  Green  be  the  turf  above  thee, 
friend  of  my  better  days  !     Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost. 

Exercise  VIH. — The  Subject  Clause. 
Example. — "That  vice  conducts  to  misery,  is  certain." 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  the  dependent  clause,  Yic6 
conduct>s  to  misery ;  the  predicate  is  in;  the  attribute  is  certain.  The  subject  of 
the  dependent  clause  is  vice;  the  predicate  is  condticts,  modified  by  tho  simple  ad- 
verbial phrase,  to  misery.     That  is  the  connective  of  the  two  clauses. 

That  you  have  wronged  me,  doth  appear  in  this.  "Whence  pro- 
ceeded this  sad  calamity,  has  not  been  ascertained.  "Wliy  he  com- 
mitted so  dreadful  a  crime,  is  a  mystery.  AVho  wrote  the  letters  of 
Junius,  is  not  positively  known.  That  it  is  our  duty  to  be  kind  to 
our  fellow-creatures,  does  not  admit  of  a  doubt.  That  I  know  not 
what  I  want,  is  the  cause  of  my  complaint.  How  tliis  difticulty  is 
to  be  solved,  is  beyond  conjecture.  That  idleness  leads  to  ruin,  and 
that  industry  insures  success,  are  certain  truths.  That  Julius  Csesar 
invaded  Britain,  is  a  well-known  historical  fact.  That  integrity  is 
essential  to  success  in  life,  ought  to  be  continually  inculcated  on  tho 
young. 

Exercise  IX. — The  Object  Clause. 

Example. — "  Remember  that  indolence  can  lead  to  nothing  but 
disgrace  and  misery." 

This  is  a  complex  imperative  sentence.  The  subject  is  thou  (understood) ;  the  pre- 
dicate is  r^Heju^e/' ;  the  object  is  the  dependent  clause,  Indolence  can  lead,  &.c. 
That  is  the  connective.      The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  indolence ;  tho 

Eredicate  is  ca7i  lead,  which  is  modified  by  the  complex  adverbial  phrase,  to  nothing 
ict  disgrace  and  misery ;  the  principal  part  of  this  phrase  is  nothiyig,  modi&ed  by 
the  phrase,  out  disgrace  and  misery.     [But — a  preposition.] 

The  orator  felt  that  every  eye  was  upon  him.  John  says  that 
his  brother  is  not  Avell.     Always  bear  in  mind  that  you  owe  very 


CHAP.  IV.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND  PAKSING.  101 

inucli  to  your  parents.  The  fool  Ijath  said  in  liis  heart,  There  is  no 
God.  See!  Aspasio,  how  all  is  calculated  to  administer  the  highest 
delight  to  mankind.  He  said,  that  he  was  well  apprised  ot"  the  obe- 
dience which  he  owed  to  the  laws.  She  had  now  to  learn  what  it 
is  to  be  a  slave.  Consider  well  whether  you  are  able  to  perform 
this  great  undertaking.  Remember,  Almet,  that  the  world  in 
which  thou  art  placed,  is  but  the  road  to  another.  And  Nathan 
said  unto  David,  Thou  art  the  man.  Then  said  Joab  to  Cushi,  Go 
tell  the  king  what  thou  hast  seen.  The  scribes  spake  unto  him, 
Baying,  Tell  us  by  what  authority  doest  thou  these  things?  The 
cynic  observed  that  the  philosopher  who  could  dine  on  herbs, 
might  despise  the  company  of  a  king. 

Exercise  X. — The  Object  Clause. — Ixfinitive  Form. 

Ohs. — In  the  infinitive  form  of  this  clause,  the  subject  and  predi- 
cate are  connected  indirectlij.  The  predicate,  instead  of  being  a 
finite  verb,  is  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  and  its  subject  is  in  the 
objective  case.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  ''  He  commanded  the  army 
to  marcli,"  army  is  the  subject,  and  to  marcli^  the  predicate;  be- 
cause it  is  indicated  (although  indirectly)  that  the  act  of  marching 
is  performed  by  the  agent  army^  the  sentence  being  equivalent  to, 
"He  commanded  that  the  army  should  march." 

Exa-Mple. — "  Conversation  makes  a  man  grow  wiser." 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  Conversation;  the  predi- 
cate is  makea;  the  object  is  the  infinitive  clause,  a  mow.  (^o)  groio  wiser.  The  subject 
of  the  dependent  clause  is  m«7i-,  modified  by  (/ ;  the  predicate  is,  to  groxo  ;  the  attri- 
bute, Winer. 

'  Tlieard  him  relate  the  story  of  his  wrongs.  I  heard  a  faint  voic^ 
call  my  name.  Let  us  then  be  up  and  doing.-^^n  this  melancholy 
state,  he  commanded  messengers  to  recall  his  eldest  son,  Abouzaid, 
from  the  army.  Let  the  dead  past  bury  its  dead.  We  often  see 
bad  men  intrusted  with  very  important  duties.  The  united  testi- 
mony of  many  witnesses,  proved  him  to  be  guilty  of  the  crime  with 
which  he  was  charged.  Forbid  them  to  enter  the  garden.  The 
Sovereigns  requested  Columbus  to  return,  and  be  present  at  the 
Convention.  It  was  the  peculiar  artifice  of  Habit,  not  to  suffer 
her  power  to  be  felt  at  first. 

Exercise  XL — The  Attribute  Clause. 
ExA:MrLE. — "His  reply  was,  that  he  was  sure  of  success." 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  reply;  the  predicate  Is 
mas;  the  attribute  is  the  dependent  clause.  He,  was  sure  of  success.  The  connective 
ia  that. 

My  hope  is,  that  you  will  regain  your  liberty.  His  decision  was, 
that  the  culprit  should  be  punished.  The  physician's  directions 
were,  that  the  patient  should  travel  to  the  South,  tliat  he  ^should 
avoid  excitement,  and  that  he  should  be  careful  in  diet.  Kepler'3 
opinion  with  regard  to  the  tides  was,  that  they  are  caused  by  the 


102  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK.  [PART  IV. 

attraction  of  the  moon.  The  general  sentiment  is,  that  the  rebellion 
is  entirely  unjustiHable.  The  cause  of  so  great  an  error  might  have 
been,  that  the  subject  had  not  been  sufficiently  studied.  The  cause 
of  the  defeat,  was  that  the  army  had  not  been  supplied  with  the 
means  of  transportation. 

ExEECiSK  XII. — Adjective  and  Adyerbial  Clauses. 

Example. — "  And  when  the  king  came  in  to  see  the  guests,  he 
saw  there  a  man  that  had  not  on  a  wedding  garment." 

Complex  declarative  sentence. 

Subject,  Ae  /  predicate,  saw;  object,  «^a?^.  Adjuncts  of  predicate,  there,  and  tho 
ndverbial  clause,  xolien  the  king  came  in  to  see  the  guests;  adjuncts  of  object,  a  and 
the  adjective  clause,  that  had  not  on  a  wedding  garment.  (Let  the  pupil  analyze 
each  dependent  clause  as  in  the  preceding  exercises.) 

When  they  arrived  at  the  orchard,  they  commenced  to  gather 
the  fruit  which  they  found  scattered  on  the  ground.  While  you 
are  striving  to  acquire  knowledge,  endeavor  also  to  become  vir- 
tuous and  good.  Where  your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be 
also.  lie  who  talks  loudly  of  qualities  that  he  does  not  possess,  is 
a  boaster.  The  globe  on  which  we  live,  is  called  the  earth.  What 
we  are  afraid  to  do  before  men,  we  should  be  much  more  afraid  to 
think  before  God.  The  place  in  which  this  event  occurred,  is  not 
mentioned  by  the  geographers  who  wrote  at  that  time.  The 
scholar  who  is  attentive  and  persevering,  is  sure  to  excel.  We 
naturally  look  with  strong  emotion  to  the  spot,  where  the  ashes  of 
those  we  liave  loved,  repose.  He  that  lies  abed  all  a  summer's 
morning,  loses  the  chief  pleasures  of  the  day  ;  he  that  gives  up  his 
youth  to  indolence,  undergoes  a  loss  of/a  like  kind.  What  would 
dare  to  molest  him  who  might  call,  on  every  side,  to  thousands  en- 
riched by  his  bounty?  He  who  knows  not  what  it  is  to  labor, 
knows  not  what  it  is  to  enjoy.  The  promise  that  he  should  be 
rewarded,  was  kept.  The  merchant  received  intelligence  that  his 
ship  had  been  wrecked. 

Exercise  XIII.— The  Explanatory  Clause. 
Example. — "  It  is  an  old  saying  that,  '  Truth  lies  in  a  well.'  " 

Complex  declarative  sentence. 

Subject,  it ;  predicate,  is ;  attribute,  saying. 

Adjunct  of  the  subject  the  explanatory  clause,  truth  lies  in  a  well;  adjuncts  d 
attiilkite,  an  and  old.  That,  a  conjunction  connecting  the  principal  and  the  depend- 
ent clause. 

It  is  said  by  some,  that  Columbus  had  a  haughtiness  of  manner. 
It  has  been  conclusively  proved,  that  the  earth  is  not  the  centre  of 
the  universe.  It  has  always  been  the  earnest  wish  of  parents,  that 
their  children  should  bo  well  educated.  It  makes  a  great  difference 
to  us,  whether  death  is  a  perpetual  sleep,  or  the  beginning  of  an- 
other and  better  life.  And  it  was  told  Joab,  Behold,  the  king 
weepeth  and  monrneth  for  Absalom.  The  question  whether  purity 
or  mixture  of  race  is  most  conducive  to  national  greatness,  appears 
not  to  be  fully  settled.     It  is  a  source  of  astonishment  to  all  his 


CHAP.  IV.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  103 

friends,  tliat  lie  sliould  have  been  guilty  of  so  disgraceful  an  act. 
It  was  observed,  that  he  derived  no  joy  from  the  benefits  which  lie 
diffused.  It  was  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  that  Xerxes  commenced 
his  march  to  the  Hellespont.  It  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty, 
tliat  our  union  was  formed. 

Exercise  XIV.— The  Paeenthetical  Clause. 

Example. — "  '  Life,'  says  Seneca,  '  is  a  voyage,  in  the  progress  of 
which,  we  are  perpetually  changing  our  scenes.'  " 

A  compound  declarative  sentence. 

Subject,  ^(Z^;  predicate,  ?s  ,•  attribnte,  voyage. 

Adjunct  ofvoydge  is  the  simple  adjective  clause,  inihe  progress  of  which  ice  are 
perpetually  changing  our  scenes.  Tlie  subject  is  u-e;  ])re(licate,  are  changing; 
object,  scenes.  Adjuncts  of  predicate,  j:)erj)etually,  and,  in  the  progress  of  Schick — 
a  complex  adverbial  phrase;  principal  part,  progress;  adjunct,  of  uhich.  Saya 
Seneca,  is  a  simple  parenthetical  clause.     Subject,  Seneca  ;  predicate,  says. 

Ohs. — Sentences  of  this  form  may  be  analyzed  by  considering  the 
parenthetical  clause,  the  principal  one,  and  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
a  dependent  clause.  The  mode  indicated  above  is,  ho\vever,  prefer- 
able ;  as,  although  the  parenthetical  clause  is  united  in  construction 
with  the  other  part  of  the  sentence,  it  is  not  necessary  to  complete 
the  sense. 

Study,  I  beseech  you,  to  store  your  minds  with  useful  knowledge. 
"  Thirst  for  gloi'y,"  says  a  great  writer,  "  is  often  founded  on  ambi- 
tion and  vanity."  "  Son  ot  affliction,"  said  Omar,  "  who  art  thou 
and  what  is  thy  distress  ?"  "Almet,"  said  lie,  '' remember  what 
thou  hast  seen,  and  let  this  memorial  be  written  upon  the  tablet  of 
thy  heart."  How  dangerous  soever  idleness  may  be,  are  there  not 
pleasures,  it  may  be  said,  which  attend  it?  A  man  who  cannot 
read,  let  us  always  remember,  is  a  being  not  contemplated  by  the 
genius  of  the  American  constitution 

Exercise  XY. — Compound  Sentences. 

Ols.  1. — In  analyzing  compound  sentences,  the  leading  clause 
should  be  distinguished  from  the  suhordinate  clause.  It  must  also 
be  understood  that  the  dependence  of  the  latter  upon  the  former, 
is  logical.,  not  grammatical.^  differing  in  this  respect  altogether  from 
the  relation  of  the  principal  and  the  dependent  clause  of  a  complex 
-sentence,  which  is  grammatical,  the  latter  being  an  adjunct^  or  used 
as  one  oi  th.Q  principal  parts.^  in  the  principal  clause. 

Obs.  2. — Some  clauses  are  simply  connected  without  logical  or 
grammatical  dependence.  They  may  then  be  called  coordinate 
clauses. 

C^~  In  the  followins  e^ramples  of  analysis,  for  the  purpose  of  abbreviation,  and  in 
order  to  furnish  the  pupil  with  a  ready  method  of  clearly  representing,  in  written 
exercises,  the  parts  of  a  sentence  and  their  relations,  the  compound  clauses  or  mem,' 
bers  tire  marked  by  Capitals;  the  simple  clauses,  by  numerals  ;  and  the  phrases,  by 
small  letters.  "When  these  are  all  written  out  in  their  order,  the  general  character  of 
the  sentence  will  beat  once  exhibited.  S.  stands  for  subject;  P.,  lor  predicate;  0„ 
object;  Att.,  attribute;  Ad.,  adjunct. 


104  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PART  III. 

Example. — "  The  only  aniarantLine  flower  oo  earth  is  virtue,  the 

only  lasthig  treasure,  truth." 

Compound  declarative  sentence,  consisting  of  two  coordinate  clauses,  without  a 
counective. 

1.  77*6  only  amaraiUliineflotoer  on  earth  is  virtue ; 

2.  The  only  Im^ting  treasure  {its)  truth. 

1.  Simple  declarative  clause. 

^.flower;   P.   is ;  Aii.  virtue. 
Ad.  S.  the,  only,  amarajithine,  on  eartJi  (a) 
n.  Simple  adjective  phrase. 

2.  Simple  declarative  clause. 

S.  treasure;  P.  is  (understood);  Att.  truth; 
Ad.  S.  the,  only,  lasting. 

Example  2, — "If  you  study  diligently  ia  youth,  you  "will  be 
happy  and  pros[)erous  in  manhood." 

Compound  declarative  sentence;  consisting  of 

1.  (Leading.)    Yoii  will  he  happy  and  j^rosperous  in  manhood ; 

2.  (Subordinate.)   You  study  diligently  in  youth  ;  Connective,*/". 

1.  Simple  declarative  clause. 

S.   You;  P.  will  be;  Att.  (componnd)  hapjyy  and  jyfosperous ; 
Ad.  P.  in  manliood  (a) 

a.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

2.  Simpl-e  declarative  clause. 

S.  yoit, ;  P.  study  ;  Ad.  P.  diligently,  in  youth  (b) 

b.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

Tlie  clouds  of  sorrow  gathered  round  his  head  ;  and  the  tempest 
of  hatred  roared  about  his  dwelling.  The  tree  was  so  crooked,  that 
the  farmer  cut  it  down.  Happiness  is  more  equally  divided  among 
mankind,  than  some  suppose.  The  meeting  was  so  respectable, 
that  the  propriety  of  its  decision  can  hardly  be  questioned.  Science 
may  raise  thee  to  eminence,  but  religion  alone  can  guide  thee  to 
felicity.  Cecrops,  who  founded  Athens,  is  thought  to  have  been 
an  Egyptian.  No  man  of  sense  ever  took  any  pains  to  appear 
wise;  as  no  honest  man  ever  used  any  tricks  to  display  his  own 
integrity.  A  reply  is  properly  a  return  to  an  answer:  to  answer 
and  to  reiily  are  therefore  not  always  equivalent  expressions. 
Others  sometimes  appear  to  us  more  wrong  than  they  are,  because 
we  ourselves  are  not  right  in  judging  them. 

Exercise  XVI.— Miscellaisteous  Sentences. 

Example  1. — "To  learn  is  to  proceed  from  something  that  is 

known  to  something  that  is  unknown." 

Complex  declarative  sentence. 

S.  to  learn;  P.  is;  Att.  to  proceed unknown,  (a) 

a.  Complex   phrase.  —  Prin.   part,   to  proceed;    Adjuncts, />'0?7j.  something  that  U 

knoivn,  (I)) ;  to  something  that  is  unknoivn,  (c) 

b.  Complex  adverbial  iihrase. — Prin.  part,  60«te^Ai?i(7  ; 

Ad.  that  is  known.  (1) 

1.  Simple  adjective  clause. 

S.  that ;  P.   is  ;  Att.  Jcnown. 

c.  Complex  adverbial  jihrase. — Prin.  part,  something ; 

Ad.  that  is  unkjtown.  (2) 

2.  Simple  adjective  clause. 

Example  2. — "I  was  now  so  confident  of  a  miraculous  supply  of 
food,  that  I  neglected  to  walk  out  for  my  repast,  which,  after 
the  tiist  day,  I  expected  with  an  impatience  which  left  mo 
little  power  of  attending  to  any  other  object." 


CHAr.  IV.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  105 

Compound  declarative  sentence. 

1.  I w,is .food;  A.  Ineglected object;  connective,  i/m^. 

1.  Simple  clause. 

3.  /;  1'.  icas;  Att.  confident.    Ad.  P.  noio  ;  Ad.  Att.  so,  and  of  a  mira- 
culous fiupplij  of  food.  (;i) 

a.  CoTnplex  adverbial  phrase. — Prin.  piivt,  suppli/  ;  Ad.  a,  miraculous,  of  food. 
A-  Oonipound  iric!tiib3i-. 

2.  Ineglected repast;    B.  xoldch object;  connective,  which. 

2.  Simple  clause. 

S.  /,•  P.  neglected ;  0.  to  walk  ontfor  my  repast,  (b) 

b.  Complex  objective  phrase. — Priu.  part,  to  walk  ;  Ad.  out,  for  my  repast. 
JB.  Complex  member. 

S.  /;  P.  expected ;  0.  xcldcJi.    Ad.  P.  after  the  first  day,  tcith  an  impa- 

tienee  xvhich  left  me object,  (c) 

«.  Complex  adverbial  plirase. — Prin.  part,  impatience  ; 

Ad.  an  and  ivhich  left  vie  little  pjower  of  attending  to  any  other  object.  (3) 

3.  Simple  adjective  clause. 

S.  xhhich ;  P.  left;  O.  power;  Ad.  P.  {to)  me ;  Ad.  0.  little,  of  attending 
to  any  other  object,  (d) 

d.  Complex  adjective  phrase. — \^v\n.  \)^rt,  attending  ;  Ad.  to  any  other  object,  (e) 

e.  Simple  adverbial  phrase.     Prin.  part,  object;  Ad.  any,  other. 

Example  3. — "  Order  is  Heaven's  first  law  ;  and  this  confessed, 

Some  are,  and  must  be,  greater  than  the  rest, 

More  rich,  more  wise;  but  who  infers  from  hence 

That  such  are  happier,  shocivs  all  common  sense." 

Compound  sentence;  consisting:  of  two  coordinate  members. 

A.  Order xoise  ;  B.  xoho sense;  Con.  but. 

A.  Compound  declarative  member. 

1.  Order Uno ;  C.  this wise;  Con.  and. 

1.  Simple  declarative  clause. 

S.  order;  P.  i-s ;  Att.  law;  Ad.  Att.  Jieaven's, first. 

C.  Compound  declarative  member. 

2.  Some  are,  and  must  be  greater,  more  ricJi,  more  wise  ; 

3.  The  rest  {are);     Con.   than;    This  {being)  cow/met/,  is  an  independent 

phrase. 

B.  Complex  declarative  member. 

S.  //t!  (understood) ;  P.  shocks;  O.  sense; 

Ad.  S.    Who  infers hajjpier  ;  (D)  ;  Ad.  0.  all,  common, 

D.  Complex  adjective  member, 

S.  toho ;  P.  infers ;  O.  that  such  are  happier.  (4) 
Ad.  P.  from  hence. 

4.  Simple  object  clause. 

S.  such;  P.  are;  Att.  happier ;  Con.  that. 

Ohs. — It  will  be  perceived  from  the  examples  analyzed  in  this 
and  in  the  foregoing  exercise^!,  tliat  complex  sentences  may  be  ana- 
lyzed in  two  ways ;  1.  By  dividing  the  sentence  immediately  into 
the  principal  and  dependent  clauses,  explaining  their  connection, 
and  then  analyzing  them  separately;  and  2.  By  treating  the  sen- 
tence as  a  whole,  pointing  out  the  subject,  predicate,  &c.,  and 
analyzing  the  dependent  clause  in  its  proper  place,  as  one  of  the 
principal  parts,  or  an  adjunct  to  either.  The  former  method  is  per- 
haps preferable  for  beginners,  but  for  more  advanced  students 
should  give  place  to  the  latter,  which  is  more  logical  and  easier  for 
intricate  sentences. 

Let  the  pupil  analyze  orally.,  or  prepare  a  icritten  analysis  of  the 
sentences  in  the  folloioing  paragraphs.^  according  to  the  preceding 
examples.^  and p)arse  each  word  syntactically. 

1.  It  is  an  empty  joy  to  appear  better  than  you  are ;  but  a  greai 
blessing  to  be  what  you  ought  to  be. 


106  EITGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  III. 

2.  Take  counsel  of  the  oracle  ia  thine  own  heart,  foi-  there  is  not 
a  more  faithful  monitor  than  that  wliich  speaks  in  secret  there. 

3.  It  is  said  that  some  thieves  who  once  rohbed  a  traveller,  very 
gravely  charged  him  with  dishonesty  for  concealing  a  part  of  his 
money. 

4.  Were  a  man  of  pleasure  to  arrive  at  the  full  extent  of  his  sev- 
eral wishes,  he  must  immediately  feel  himself  miserable.  It  is  one 
species  of  despair,  to  have  no  room  to  hope  for  any  addition  to 
one's  happiness.  His  following  wish  must  then  be,  to  wish  that  he 
had  some  fresh  object  for  his  wishes.  This  is  a  strong  argument, 
that  the  mind  and  the  body  were  both  designed  for  strenuous 
activity. 

5.  Few  men,  that  would  cause  respect  and  distance  merel}^  can 
say  anything  by  which  their  end  will  be  so  effectually  answered  as 
by  silence. 

--^^f).  Sometimes,  a  distant  sail,  gliding  along  the  edge  of  the  ocean, 
would  be  another  theme  of  idle  speculation.  How  interesting  this 
fragment  of  a  world,  hastening  to  rejoin  the  great  mass  of  exist- 
ence!  "What  a  glorious  monument  of  human  invention,  that  has 
thus  triumphed  over  wind  and  wave ;  has  brought  the  ends  of  tho 
world  into  communion  ;  has  established  an  interchange  of  blessings, 
pouring  into  the  sterile  regions  of  the  north,  all  the  luxuries  of  tho 
south;  has  diffused  the  light  of  knowledge  and  the  charities  of  cul- 
tivated life;  and  has  thus  bound  together  those  scattered  portions 
of  the  human  race,  between  which  nature  seemed  to  have  thrown 
an  insurmountable  barrier. 

7.  His  story  shows  how  one  lapse  from  duty  may  counterbalance 
the  merits  of  a  thousand  services;  how  one  moment  of  weakness 
may  mar  the  beauty  of  a  whole  life  of  virtue  ;  and  how  important 
it  is  for  a  man,  under  all  circumstances,  to  be  true  not  merely  to 
others,  but  to  himself. 

8.  When  Education  delivered  up  those  for  whose  happiness  slie 
had  been  so  long  solicitous,  she  seemed  to  expect  that  they  should 
express  some  gratitude  for  her  care,  or  some  regret  at  the  loss  of 
that  protection  which  she  had  hitherto  afforded  them.  But  it  was 
easy  to  discover,  by  the  alacrity  which  broke  out  at  her  departure, 
that  her  presence  had  been  long  displeasing,  and  that  she  had  been 
teaching  those  who  felt  in  themselves  no  want  of  instruction. 

9.  Disguise  thyself  as  thou  wilt,  still.  Slavery!  still  thou  art  a 
bitter  draught;  and  though  thousands  in  all  ages  have  been  mado 
to  drink  of  thee,  thou  art  no  less  bitter  on  that  account. 

10.  See,  Aspasio,  how  all  is  calculated  to  administer  the  highest 
delight  to  mankind!  Those  trees  and  hedges,  which  skirt  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  landscape,  stealing  away  from  their  real  bulk,  and 
lessening  by  gentle  diminutions,  appear  like  elegant  pictures  in 
miniature.  Tliose  which  occupy  the  nearer  situations,  are  a  set  of 
noble  images,  sv/elling  upon  the  eye,  in  full  proportion,  and  in  a 
variety  of  graceful  attitudes  ;  both  of  them  ornamenting  the  several 
apartments  of  our  corai-non  abode,  with  a  mixture  of  delicacy  and 
grandeur. 


CHAP.  IV.]      SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  107 

11.  '•'  My  friends,"  said  lie,  "I  Lave  seriously  considered  our  man- 
ners and  our  prospects ;  and  I  find  that  we  have  mistaken  our  own 
interest.  Let  us  therefore  stop,  while  to  stop  is  in  our  power."— 
They  stared  awhile  in  silence,  one  ui)on  another,  and  at  last  drove 
him  away  by  a  general  ciiorus  of  cimtinued  laughter. 

12.  Vexed  at  so  untimely  a  disturbance,  and  disappointed  of 
news  from  Spain,  the  duke  frowned  for  a  moment;  but  chagrin 
soon  gave  way  to  mirth,  at  so  singular  and  ridiculous  a  combination 
of  circumstances,  and  yielding  to  the  impulse,  he  sunk  upon  the  bed 
in  a  violent  lit  of  laughter,  which  was  communicated  in  a  moment 
to  the  attendants. 

13.  Let  us  not  confide  presumptuously  in  the  sufnciency  of  a 
national  education  ;  for  though  ignorance  may  destroy  us,  knowl- 
edge alone  cannot  save.  Knowledge  is,  indeed,  power;  but  it  13 
power  to  kill  as  well  as  to  make  alive,  as  it  is  wielded  by  the  mad- 
ness of  the  heart,  or  by  moral  principle. 

14.  There  is  not  in  this  wide  world  a  safe  deposit  for  liberty,  but 
the  hearts  of  patriots,  so  enlightened  as  to  be  able  to  judge  of  cor- 
rect legislation,  and  so  patient  and  disinterested,  as  to  practice  sel£»' 
denial  and  self-government  for  the  public  good. 

15.  The  Spring — she  is  a  blessed  thing! 

She  is  mother  of  the  flowers ; 
She  is  the  mate  of  buds  and  bees, 
The  partner  of  .heir  revelries, 

Our  star  of  hope  through  wintry  liours. 

16.  Tell  me  not  in  vnournfu/  numbers, 

Life  is  but  an  empty  dream! 
For  the  soul  is  dead  that  slumbers, 
And  things  are  not  what  they  seem* 


TAKT     lY. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures, 
and  versification. 


CHAPTER  I.— PUNCTUATIOK 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  composition, 
by  points,  or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
more  clearly  the  sense  and  relation  of  the  words, 


108  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PART  IV. 

and  of  noting  the  different  pauses  and  inflections 
required  in  reading. 

The  following  are  the  principal  points,  or  marks; 
the  Comma  [,],  the  Semicolon  [;],  the  Colon  [:], 
the  Period  [.],  the  Dash  [ — ],  the  Eroteme,  or 
Note  of  Interrogation  [?],  the  Ecphonerae,  or  Note 
of  Exclamation  [!],  and  the  Curves,  or  Marks  of 
Parenthesis  [()]. 

The  Comma  denotes  the  shortest  pause;  the 
Semicolon,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  comma ; 
the  Colon,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  semicolon  ; 
and  the  Period,  or  Full  Stop,  a  pause  double  that 
of  the  colon.  The  pauses  required  by  the  other 
four,  vary  according  to  the  structure  of  the  sen- 
tence, and  their  j)lace  in  it. 

SECTION  I. — OF  THE   COMMA. 

The  Comma  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of 
a  sentence,  which  are  so  nearly  connected  in  sense, 
as  to  be  only  one  degree  removed  from  that  close 
<sio^^exion  which  admits  no  point. 

EXAMPLES. 

That  life  is  long,  which  answers  life's  great  end. 
The  mind,  though  free,  has  a  governor  witliin  itself. 
In  eternity,  days,  years,  and  ages,  are  nothing. 
Good  and  evil,  like  heat  and  cold,  differ  totally. 
To  strengthen  our  virtue,  God  bids  us  trust  in  Him. 

SECTION  II. — OF  THE   SEMICOLON. 

The  Semicolon  is  used  to  separate  those  parts 
of  a  compound  sentence,  which  are  neither  so 
closely  connected  as  those  which  are  distinguished 
by  the  comma,  nor  so  little  dependent  as  those 
which  require  the  colon. 

EXAMPLES. 

In  the  regions  inhabited  by  angelic  natures,  unmingled  felicity 
forever  blooms ;  joy  flows  there  with  a  perpetual  and  abundant 
stream,  nor  needs  any  mound  to  check  its  course. 

Straws  swim  upon  the  surface ;  but  pearls  lie  at  the  bottom. 

5* 


CHAP.  I.]  PROSODY. — PUNCTUATIOIT.  109 

SECTION   III. — OF  THE   COLON. 

The  Colon  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a 
compound  sentence,  which  are  neither  so  closely 
connected  as  those  which  are  distinguished  by  the 
semicolon,  nor  so  little  dependent  as  those  which 
require  the  period. 

EXAMPLES. 

Avoid  evil  doers :  in  such  society,  an.  honest  man  may  becomo 
ashamed  of  himself. 

Princes  have  courtiers,  and  merchants  have  partners;  the  volup- 
tuous have  companions,  and  the  Avicked  have  accomplices:  none 
but  the  virtuous  can  have  friends. 

SECTION  IV. — OF   THE   PERIOD. 

The  Period,  or  Full  Stop,  is  used  to  mark  an 
entire  and  independent  sentence,  whether  simple 
or  compound. 

EXAMPLES. 

Every  deviation  from  truth,  is  criminal.  Abhor  a  falsehood. 
Let  your  words  be  ingenuous.  Sincerity  possesses  the  most  power- 
ful charm. — Blair. 

SECTION  V. — OF  THE  DASH. 

The  Dash  is  used  to  denote  an  unexpected 
pause,  of  variable  length. 

EXAMPLES. 

"I  must  inquire  into  the  affair,  and  if"— "And  ifP''  interrupted 
the  farmer. 

Here  lies  the  great— false  marble,  where? 
Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  liere. —  Young. 

SECTION  VI. — OF  THE   EROTEME. 

The  Eroteme,  or  Note  of  Interrogation,  is  used 
to  designate  a  question. 

EXAMPLES. 

In  life,  can  love  be  bought  with  gold? 

Are  friendship's  pleasures  to  be  sold? — Johnson. 

SECTION  VII. — OF  THE   ECPHONEME. 

The  Ec23honeme,  or  Note  of  Exclamation,  is  used 


110  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  IV. 

to  der 
mind. 


to  denote  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the 


EXAMPLES. 


O!  let  me  listen  to  the  words  of  life! — Thomson. 
Alas !  how  is  that  rugged  heart  forlorn ! — Beattie, 

SECTION   VIII. — OF   THE   CURVES. 

The  Curves,  or  Marks  of  Parenthesis,  are  used 
to  distinguish  a  clause  or  hint  that  is  hastily 
thrown  in  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence  to 
which  it  does  not  properly  belong. 

EXAMPLES. 

To  otliers  do  (the  law  is  not  severe) 
What  to  thyself  thou  wishest  to  be  done. — Beattie. 
Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below. — Poj^e. 

Ohs. — The  incidental  clause  should  be  uttered  in  a  lower  tone, 
and  faster  tlian  the  principal  sentence.  It  always  requires,  both 
before  and  after  it,  a  pause  as  great  as  that  of  a  comma,  or  greater. 

SECTION  IX. — OF  THE   OTHER  MARKS. 

There  are  also  other  marks  that  are  occasion- 
ally used  for  various  purposes,  as  follow : — 

1.  [']  The  Ax>ostrophe  usually  denotes  either  the  possessive  case 
of  a  noun,  or  the  elision  of  one  or  more  letters  of  a  word ;  as,  The 
girVs  regard  to  her  parents'*  advice ; — ''gan^  lov''d,  e'eii,  thro'' ;  for 
hegan,  loved,,  etei^  through. 

2.  [-]  The  Hyphen  connects  the  parts  of  compound  words;  as, 
ever-li'ding .  Placed  at  the  end  of  a  line,  it  shows  that  one  or  more 
syllables  of  a  word  are  carried  forward  to  the  next  line. 

3.  [  "  ]  Tlie  BicBresis,  placed  over  the  latter  of  two  vowels,  shows 
that  they  are  not  a  diplithong;  as,  aerial. 

4.  [^ ]  The  Acute  Accent  marks  the  syllable  which  requires  the 
principal  stress  in  pronunciation;  as^  equal,  equal' ity.  It  is  some- 
times used  in  opposition  to  the  grave  accent,  to  distinguish  a  close 
or  short  vowel,  or  to  denote  the  rising  inflection  of  the  voice. 

5.  [']  The  Grave  Accent  is  used,  in  opposition  to  the  acute,  to 
distinguish  an  open  or  long  vowel,  or  to  denote  the  falling  inflection 
of  the  voice. 

6.  [a]  The  Circumflex  generally  denotes  either  the  broad  sound 
of  «,  or  an  unusual  and  long  sound  given  to  some  other  vowel;  as 
in  ebldt^  all,  htir,  machine,  move,  hull. 

7.  [^]  The  Breve  is  used  to  denote  eitlier  a  close  vowel,  or  a  syl- 
lable of  short  quantity ;  as,  raven,  to  devour. 


CHAP.  II.]      PROSODY. — UTTERANCE.  Ill 

8.  [-]  The  Macron  is  used  to  denote  either  an  open  vowel  or  a 
syllable  of  long  quantity;  a>J,  rdven^  a  bird. 

9.  [ ]  or  [****f  The  Ellipsis  denotes  the  omission  of  some 

letters  or  words ;  as,  A — g  for  l:ing. 

10.  [a]  The  Caret  shovis  vihere  to  insert  words  that  have  been 
accidentally  omitted. 

11.  [  n  The  Brace  serves  to  unite  a  triplet,  or  to  connect  sev- 
eral terms  with  something  to  which  they  are  all  related. 

12.  [§]The  Section  marks  the  smaller  divisions  of  a  book  or 
chapter ;  and,  with  the  help  of  numbers,  serves  to  abridge  refer- 
ences. 

13.  [T]  The  ParagrapJi  (chiefly  used  in  the  Bible)  denotes  the 
commencement  of  a  new  subject.  The  parts  of  discourse  which 
are  called  paragraphs,  are,  in  general,  sufficiently  distinguislied,  by 
beginning  a  new  line,  and  carrying  the  first  word  a  little  forwards 
or  backwards. 

14.  [""]  The  Guillemets,  or  Quotation  Points^  distinguish  words 
that  are  taken  from  some  other  author  or  speaker.  A  quotation 
■within  a  quotation  is  marked  with  single  points ;  which,  when  both 
are  employed,  are  placed  within  the  others. 

15.  [[]]  The  Crotchets,  or  Braclcets,  generally  inclose  some  cor- 
rection or  explanation,  or  the  subject  to  be  explained ;  as,  "  He 
[the  speaker]  was  of  a  different  opinion." 

16.  [^^^]  The  Index,  ov  Rand,  points  out  something  remarkable. 

17.  [  *  ]  The  Asterisk,  [  t  ]  the  Ohelislc,  [  J  J  the  DouUe  Dagger,  and 
[II  ]  the  Parallels,  refer  to  marginal  notes.  The  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, or  the  numerical ^f^wrds,  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

18.  [*5|;*]  Tho,  Asterism,  or  Three  Stars,  a  sign  not  very  often 
used,  is  i)laced  before  a  long  or  general  note,  to  mark  it  as  a  note, 
"without  giving  it  a  particular  reference. 

19.  [  c  J  The  Cedilla  is  a  mark  which  is  sometimes  set  under  a 
letter  to  show  that  its  sound,  in  the  given  word,  is  soft ;  as  in 
fa(;ade,  where  the  c  sounds  as  s. 


CHAPTER  II.— UTTERANCE. 

Utterance  is  tlie  art  of  vocal  expression.  It 
includes  the  principles  of  pronunciation  and  elo- 
cution. 

SECTION  I. — OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation,  as  distinguished  from  elocution, 
is  the  utterance  of  words  taken  separately. 

Pronunciation  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  just 


112  ENGLISH  GRAMMAE.  [PAET  IV. 

powers  of  the  letters  in  all  tlieir  combinations,  and 
of  the  force  and  seat  of  the  accent. 

1.  The  Just  Powers  of  the  letters  are  those  sounds  which  are 
given  to  them  by  the  best  readers. 

2.  Accent  is  tlie  pecuhar  stress  which  we  lay  upon  some  particu- 
lar syllable  of  a  word,  whereby  that  syllable  is  distinguished  from 
and  above  the  rest ;  as,  gram'-mar^  gram-ma' -ri-an. 

Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable,  has  one  of  its  syllables  ac- 
cented. 

When  the  word  is  long,  for  the  sake  of  harmony  or  distinctness, 
we  often  give  a  secondary,  or  less  forcible  accent,  to  an  other  sylla- 
ble ;  as,  to  the  last  of  tern' -per-a-tur^ ^  and  to  the  second  of  in-dem'- 
ni-Ji-ca' -tion. 

A  full  and  open  pronunciation  of  the  long  vowel  sounds,  a  clear 
articulation  of  the  consonants,  a  forcible  and  well  placed  accent, 
and  a  distinct  utterance  of  the  unaccented  syllables,  distinguish  the 
elegant  speaker. 

SECTION  II. — OF   ELOCUTION. 

Elocution  is  the  utterance  of  words  that  are 
arranged  into  sentences,  and  that  form  discourse. 

Elocution  requires  a  knowledge,  and  right  ap- 
plication, of  emphasis,  pauses,  inflections,  and 
tones. 

1.  Bmphasis  is  the  peculiar  stress  which  we  lay  upon  som^s  par- 
ticular word  or  words  in  a  sentence,  which  are  thereby  distin- 
guished from  the  rest  as  being  more  especially  significant. 

2.  Pauses  are  cessations  in  utterance,  which  serve  equally  to  re- 
lieve the  speaker,  and  to  render  language  intelligible  and  pleasing. 
The  duration  of  the  pauses  should  be  proportionate  to  tho  degree 
of  connexion  between  the  parts  of  the  discourse. 

3.  InjUctions  are  those  peculiar  variations  of  the  human  voice,  by 
which  a  continuous  sound  is  made  to  pass  from  one  note,  key,  or 
pitch,  into  an  other.  The  passage  of  the  voice  from  a  lower  to  a 
higher  or  shriller  note,  is  called  the  rising  inflection  ; — the  passage 
of  the  voice  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  or  graver  note,  is  called  the 
/ailing  inflection. 

These  two  opposite  inflections  maybe  heard  in  the  following  ex- 
amples: 1.  The  rising^  "Do  you  mean  to  gof'' — 2.  The  falling^ 
"  When  will  you  go  .?" 

Ols. — Questions  that  may  be  answered  by  yes  or  no,  require  the 
rising  inflection :  those  that  demand  any  other  answer,  must  be 
uttered  with  the  falling  inflection. 

4.  Tones  are  those  modulations  of  the  voice,  which  depend  upon 
the  feelings  of  the  speaker.  They  are  what  Sheridan  denominates 
"  the  language  of  emotions."  And  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  they  be  natural,  unafiected,  and  rightly  adapted  to  the  subject 
and  to  the  occasion ;  for  upon  them,  in  a  great  measuue,  depends 
all  that  is  pleasing  or  interesting  in  elocution. 


t 


CHAP.  III.]  PKOSODY. — FIGURES.  113 


CHAPTER  in.— FIGURES. 

A  figure,  ia  grammar,  is  an  intentional  devia- 
tion from  the  ordinary  spelling,  formation,  con-^ 
struction,  or  application  of  words.  There  ara 
accordingly,  figures  of  Orthography,  figures  of 
Etymology,  figures  of  Syntax,  and  figures  of 
Khetoric.  When  figures  are  judiciously  employ- 
ed, they  both  strengthen  and  adorn  expression. 
They  occur  more  frequently  in  poetry  than  in 
prose  ;  and  sev^eral  of  them  are  merely  poetic 
licenses. 

SECTION  I. — FIGURES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

A  figure  of  Orthography  is  an  intentional  de- 
viation from  the  ordinary  or  true  spelling  of  a 
word. 

The  principal  figures  of  Orthography  are  two ;  namely,  Mi-m^-sis 
and  Ar'cha-ism. 

1.  Mimesis  is  a  ludicrous  imitation  of  some  mistake  or  mispro- 
nunciation of  a  word,  in  which  the  error  is  mimicked  by  a  false 
spelling,  or  the  taking  of  one  word  for  an  other;  as,  '■' Maister^ 
says  he,  have  you  any  ioe7'i/  good  iceal  in  yoar  vallet  ?" — Columbian 
Orator^  p.  292.  "  Ay,  he  was  porn  at  Monmouth,  Captain  Gower." 
— Shak.  "  I  will  description  the  matter  to  you,  if  you  be  capacity 
ofit."— /cZ. 

"  Perdigious  !  I  can  hardly  stand." — Lloyd. 

2.  An  Archaism  is  a  word  or  phrase  expressed  according  to  an- 
cient usage,  and  not  according  to  our  modern  orthography;  as, 
"  Newe  grene  chese  of  smalle  clammy nes  comfortethe  a  liotte  stomahe.* 
— T.  Paynel:    TooJce^s  Diversions,  ii,  132. 

"  "With  him  was  rev'rend  Contemplation  pight. 
Bow-bent  with  eld^  his  beard  of  snowy  hue." — Beattie, 

SECTION   II. — FIGURES  OF  ETYMOLOGY. 

A  figure  of  Etymology  is  an  intentional  devia- 
tion from  the  ordinary  formation  of  a  word. 

The  principal  figures  of  Etymology  are  eight;  namely,  A-phcer^- 
€-sis,  Pros' -thesis,  Syn'-co-pe,  A-poc'-o-pe,  Par-a-go'ge^  Di-ar'-e-siSf 
Syn-cer'-e-siSy  and  Tmef'Sis. 


114  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  IV. 

1.  ApJimresis  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  initial  letters  of  a  word ; 
as,  ^gainst^  ^gan^  hieath^ — for  against^  began^  heneath. 

2.  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixiug  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a  word ; 
as,  <2down,  appaid,  S^strown,  evanished, — for  down,  paid,  strewn^ 
finished. 

3.  Syncope  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  middle  letters  of  a  word ; 
as,  med'cine^  for  medicine  ;  e'en,  for  enen  ;  o'er,  for  over. 

•4.  Apocope,  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  final  letters  of  a  word ; 
as,  tho\  for  though  ;  th\  for  the  ;  t other,  for  the  other. 

5.  Paragoge  is  the  annexing  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a  word ; 
as,  withouten,  for  icithout;  my  deary,  for  my  dear. 

6.  Diceresis  is  the  separating  of  two  vowels  that  might  form  a 
diphthong;  as,  coojjerate,  not  cooperate;  orfhoipy,  not  ortho&py. 

7.  SyncBvesis  is  the  sinking  of  two  syllables  into  one;  as,  seest^ 
for  se'est ;  tacked,  for  tack-ed. 

Ohs. — When  a  vowel  is  entirely  suppressed  in  pronunciation, 
(whether  retained  in  writing  or  not,)  the  consonants  connected 
with  it,  fall  into  an  other  syllable:  thus,  loved  or  lov''d,  lovest  or 
lov''8t,  are  monosyllables,  except  in  solemn  discourse,  in  which  the 
e  is  made  vocal. 

8.  Tmens  is  the  inserting  of  a  word  between  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound ;  a.j,  "On  which  side  soever  j'^—'-''  To  us  tcard;'^ — "'^(3  God 
ward.'''' — Bible. 

SECTION  III. — FIGURES    OF  SYNTAX. 

A  figure  of  Syntax  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  construction  of  words. 

The  principal  figures  of  Syntax  are  five;  namely,  El-lip'-s'L,  PW- 
o-nasyn,  Syl-lep'-sis,  Ea-al'-la-ge,  and  Hy-jyer'-ba-ton. 

1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  some  words  which  are  necessary  to 
complete  the  construction,  but  not  necessary  to  convey  the  mean- 
ing ;  as,  "  '  Who  did  this  ?'  '  I'  [did  it.^  Such  words  are  said  to 
be  understood;  because  they  are  received  as  belonging  to  ^he  sen- 
tence, though  they  are  not  uttered. 

2.  Pleonasm  is  the  introduction  of  superfluous  words.  This  figure 
is  allowable  only,  when  in  animated  discmrse,  it  abruptly  intro- 
duces an  emphatic  word,  or  repeats  an  idea  to  impress  it  more 
strongly;  as,  ^ethat  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear!" — ^'I  know 
thee  icho  thou  art.''''  A  pleonasm  is  sometimes  impressive  and  ele- 
gant ;  but  an  unemphatic  repetition  of  the  same  idea,  is  one  of  tho 
worst  faults  of  bad  writing. 

3.  Syllepsis  is  agreement  formed  according  to  the  figurative  sense 
of  a  word,  or  the  mental  conception  of  the  thing  spoken  of,  and  not 
according  to  the  literal  or  common  use  of  the  term;  it  is  therefore, 
in  general,  connected  with  some  figure  of  rhetoric:  as,  "The  Word 
was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us,  and  we  beheld  his  gUny." — 
John,  i,  14.  "Then  Philip  went  down  to  the  city  of  Samaria,  and 
preached  Ciirist  unto  them. ^^ —Acts,  viii,  5.  "  W h'lle  Evening  draws 
her  crimson  curtain  round." 


CHAP.  III.]  PROSODY. — FIGURES.  115 

4.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  of  one  inod idea- 
tion for  an  other.  This  figure  borders  closely  upon  solecism.*  It 
is  a  license  sparingly  indulged  in  poetry,  and  fashion  has  given  it 
at  least  one  torni  in  prose;  as, 

"  You  know  that  you  are  Brutus  tliat  ^pealc  this." — Sliah. 
"They  fall  successive  [ly,]  and  successive  [ly]  rise." — Po2)e. 
'•'Than  whom  [who]  none  Iiiglier  sat." — ALiltoii. 
"So  furious  was  that  onset's  shock, 
Destruction's  gates  at  once  unlochy — Hogg. 

5.  Hyperlaton  is  the  transposition  of  words ;  as,  "  He  wandera 
earth  around^'''' — '■''Rings  the  icorld  with  the  vain  stir."  This  figure 
is  much  employed  in  poetry.  A  judicious  use  of  it  confers  harmony, 
variety,  streugth,  and  vivacity,  upon  composition.  But  care  should 
be  taken  lest  it  produce  ambiguity  or  obscurity. 

SECTION  IV. — FIGURES   OF   RHETORIC. 

A  figure  of  Rhetoric  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  application  of  words. 

Numerous  departures  from  perfect  simplicity  of  diction  occur  in 
almost  every  kind  of  composition.  They  are  mostly  founded  on 
some  similitude  or  relation  of  things,  which,  by  the  power  of  imag- 
ination, is  rendered  conducive  to  ornament  or  illustration. 

The  principal  figures  of  Rhetoi'ic  are  fourteen  ;  namely,  Sim'-i-Ie, 
Met'-a-pho7\  Al'-le-go-ry^  Me-tort'y-my^  Syn-ed -do-che^  Hy-'pei^-ho-le^ 
Vis'-ion^  A-pos'-tro-phe,  Person' -i-Ji-ca'-tion^  Er-o-te'sis^  Ec-pho-nd' 
sis^  An-tith' -e-sis^  Gli'-max.,  and  I'-ro-ny. 

1.  A  Simile  is  a  simple  and  express  comparison ;  and  is  generally 
introduced  by  lihe^  as^  or  so ;  as, 

"  At  first,  liJce  thunder^s  distant  tone^ 
The  rattling  din  came  rolling  on." — Hogg. 

2.  A  Metapjhor  is  a  figure  that  expresses  the  resemblance  of  two 
objects,  by  applying  either  the  name,  or  some  attribute,  adjunct^ 
or  action,  of  the  one,  directly  to  the  other ;  as, 

"  His  eye  was  morning's  hrightest  ray^ — Bogg. 
"Beside  him  sleeps  the  warrior's  bow." — Id. 

3.  Kn  Allegory  \B,  a  continued  narration  of  ficlitious  events  de- 
signed to  represent  and  illustrate  important  realities.  Thus  the 
Psalmist  represents  the  Jewish  nation  under  the  symbol  of  a  vine: 
"Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt:  thou  hast  cast  out  the 
heathen  and  planted  it.     Thou  preparedst  room  before  it,  and  didst 


*  Deviations  of  this  kind  are,  in  general,  to  be  considereil  solecisms  ;  otherwise  tho 
rutes  of  grammar  would  be  of  no  use  or  autiionty.  Desp  iutei\  an  ancient  Latin  gram- 
marian, gave  an  improper  latitude  to  tliis  figure,  under  the  name  of  Antiptofils  ;  and 
Behourt  and  otheis  extended  it  still  further.  But  S'tnctius  says,  "  Antiptosi  granif 
matico rum  nihil  imperitiufi,  quod  Jigmentum  si  easet  verum,  fricstra  qucBreretuf, 
gitem  casum  verba  regerenV  And  the  Jfe^isieu^rs  Be  Port  Ro}jal  reject  tne  tiguro 
altogetiier.  There  are,  however,  some  changes  of  this  kind,  which  the  grammarian  is 
not  competent  to  condemn,  though  they  do  not  accord  with  the  ordinary  principles  of 
eonfitruction. 


116  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [PART  IV. 

cause  it  to  take  deep  root;  and  it  filled  the  land.  The  hills  were 
covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the  boughs  thereof  were  like 
the  goodly  cedars." — Psalms^  Ixxx,  8. 

4.  A  Metonymy  is  a  change  of  names.  It  is  founded  on  some 
such  relation  as  tliat  of  cause  and  effect^  of  subject  and  adjunct^  of 
j:lace  and  inhabitant^  of  container  and  thing  contained^  or  of  sign 
and  thing  signirfied:  as,  ''God  is  our  sahationf  i.  e.,  Saviour. — 
"He  was  the  sigh  of  her  secret  soul;"  i.  e.,  the  youth  she  loved.^ 
"They  smote  the  city  f  i.  e.,  citizens. — "My  son,  give  me  thy 
heart ;"  i.  e.,  affection. — "  The  sceftre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah;" 
i.  e,,  Tcingly  jjoicer. 

5.  Synecdoche  is  the  naming  of  a  whole  for  a  part,  or  of  a  part 
for  the  whole;  as,  "This  roof\\.  e.,  house]  protects  you." — "Now 
the  year  [i.  e.,  summer]  is  beautiful.'' — Thomson. 

6.  Hyperbole  is  extravagant  exaggeration,  in  which  the  imagina- 
tion is  indulged  beyond  the  sobriety  of  truth  ;  as, 

"  The  sky  shrunh  upward  with  unusual  dread^ 
And  trembling  Tiber  div'd  beneath  his  bed.''"' — Dryden. 

7.  Vision,  or  Imagery,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  repre- 
sents the  objects  of  his  imagination,  as  actually  before  his  eyes,  and 
present  to  his  senses ;  as, 

"  Andromache — thy  griefs  I  dread  ; 
I  see  thee  trembling,  weeping,  captive  led." — Fope. 

8.  Ap)Ostrophe  is  a  turning  from  the  regular  course  of  the  subject, 
into  an  animated  address;  as,  "Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory. 
O  Death  !  where  is  thy  sting  ?  O  Grave !  where  is  thy  victory  ?" 
—1  Cor.,  XV,  54. 

9.  Personification  is  a  figure  by  which,  in  imagination,  we  ascribe 
intelligence  and  personality  to  unintelligent  beings  or  abstract  qual- 
ities ;  as, 

"Lo,  steel-clad  War  his  gorgeous  standard  rears!" — Rogers. 
"Hark!   Truth  proclaims,  thy  triumphs  cease!" — Id. 

10.  JEJrotesis  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  adopts  the  form  of 
interrogation,  not  to  express  a  doubt,  but  in  general  confidently  to 
assert  the  reverse  of  what  is  asked ;  as,  "  Hast  thou  an  arm  like 
God  ?  or  canst  thou  thunder  with  a  voice  like  him  ?" — Job,  xl,  9. 

11.  Ecphonesis  is  a  pathetic  exclamation,  denoting  some  violent 
emotion  of  the  mind;  as,  "O  Liberty  !  O  sound  once  delightful  to 
every  Roman  ear!  O  sacred  privilege  of  Roman  citizenship! — once 
sacred — now  trampled  upon!" — Cicero. 

12.  Antithesis  is  a  placing  of  things  in  opposition  to  heighten 
their  effect  by  contrast ;  as, 

"  Contrasted  faults  through  all  their  manners  reign  ; 
Though 7>oor,  luxurious;  though  submissive,  vain; 
Though  grave,  yet  trijiing  ;  zealous,  yet  untrue  ; 
And,  e'en  in  penance,  planning  sins  anew." — Goldsjnith. 

13.  Climax  is  a  figure  in  which  the  sense  is  made  to  advance  by 
BUccessivG  steps,  to  rise  gradually  to  what  is  more  and  more  im- 
portant and  interesting,  or  to  descend  to  what  is  more  and  more 


CHAP.  IV.]  PROSODY. — YERSIFICATI02T.  117 

minute  and  particular ;  as,   "  Tribulation  worketli  patience ;  and 
patience,  experience;  and  experience,  hope." — liom.^  v,  3. 

14.  Irony  is  a  figure  in  wliich  the  speaker  sneeringly  utters  the 
direct  reverse  of  what  he  intends  shall  be  understood  ;  as,  "  Wo 
liave,  to  be  sure,  great  reason  to  believe  the  modest  man  would  not 
ask  him  for  a  debt,  when  he  pursues  his  \\iQy  —  Cicero. 


CHAPTER  lY.— VERSIFICATION. 

Versification  is  the  art  of  arranging  words  into 
lines  of  correspondent  length,  so  as  to  produce 
harmony  by  the  regular  alternation  of  syllables 
differing  in  quantity. 

SECTION"   I. — OF    QUANTITY. 

The  Quantity  of  a  syllable,  is  the  relative  portion  of  time  occu- 
pied in  uttering  it.  In  poetry,  every  syllable  is  considered  to  be 
either  long  or  short.  A  long  syllable  is  reckoned  to  be  equal  to 
two  short  ones. 

Ols.  1.— The  quantity  of  a  syllable  does  not  depend  on  the  sound 
of  the  vowel  or  diphthong,  but  principally,  on  the  degree  of  accent- 
ual force  with  which  the  syllable  is  uttered,  whereby  a  greater  or 
less  portion  of  time  is  employed.  Tlie  open  vowel  sounds  are  those 
which  are  the  most  easily  protracted,  yet  they  often  occur  in  the 
shortest  and  feeblest  syllables. 

Ohs.  2. — Most  monosyllables  are  variable,  and  may  be  made  either 
long  or  short,  as  suits  the  rhythm.  In  words  of  greater  length,  the 
accented  syllable  is  always  long  ;  and  a  syllable  immediately  before 
or  after  that  which  is  accented,  is  always  short. 

SECTION  II. — OF  RHYME. 

Ehyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound,  between  the  last  syllables  of  dif- 
ferent lines.     Blank  verse  is  verse  without  rhyme. 

Ohs. — The  principal  rhyming  syllables  are  always  long.  Doubl© 
rhyme  adds  one  short  syllable ;  triple  rhyme,  two.  Such  syllable* 
ar©  redundant  in  iambic  and  anapestic  verses. 

SECTION  III. — OF  POETIC  FEET. 

A  line  of  poetry  consists  of  successive  combinations  of  syllables, 
galled /<3e^.  K  poetic  foot^  in  EnglisTi,  consists  either  of  two  or  of 
three  syllables. 

The  principal  English  feet  are  tlie  Iambus^  the  Trochee^  the  Ana- 
pest^  and  the  Dactyl. 


118  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR.  fPART  IV 

1.  The  lanibus^  or  Imnb^  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  a  short 
syllable  and  a  long  one  ;  as,  betray^  conj  iss. 

2.  The  Trochee  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  a  long  syllable  and  a 
short  one ;  as,  hateful^  pettish. 

3.  The  Ancqyest  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  two  short  syllables 
and  one  long  one ;  as,  contravene^  acquiesce. 

4.  The  Dactyl  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  one  long  syllable  and 
two  short  ones ;  as,  labourer.,  possible. 

"We  have,  accordingly,  four  kinds  of  verse,  or  poetic  measure ; 
Iambic^  Trochaic^  Anapestic.^  and  Dactylic. 

SECTION  IV. — OF  SCANNING. 

Scanning.,  or  Scansion.,  is  the  dividing  of  verses  into  the  feet  "which 
compose  them. 

I.  In  Iambic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  ou  the  even  syllables,  and  the 
odd  ones  are  short. 

EXAMPLES. 

"For  praise  |  too  dear]-]y  lov'd  |  or  w^arraj-ly  sought, 
Enfeej-bles  all  |  inter|-nal  strength  |  of  thought." 

*' With  solj-emn  adl-oraj-tion  down  |  they  cast 
Their  crowns  |  inwove  |  with  amj-arant  |  and  gold." 

II.  In  Trochaic  verse^  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  odd  syllables,  and 
the  even  ones  are  short.  Single-rhymed  trochaic  omits  the  final 
short  syllable,  that  it  may  end  with  a  long  one.  This  kind  of 
verse  is  the  same  as  iambic  would  be  without  the  initial  short  syl- 
lable. 

EXAMPLES. 

"Round  a  |  holy  [  calm  dif]-fusing. 
Love  of  I  peace  and  |  lonely  |  musing." 
Single  Rhyme. 

"Restless  I  mortals  |  toil  for  |  naught; 
Bliss  in  |  vain  from  |  earth  is  {  sought." 

III.  In  Anapestic  verse.,  the  stress  is  laid  on  every  third  syllable. 
The  first  foot  of  an  anapestic  line,  may  be  an  iambus. 

EXAMPLE. 

"  At  th^  close  I  of  the  day,  |  when  the  hara|-lSt  is  still, 
And  mor]-tals  the  sweets  j  of  forget  [-fulness  prove, 
When  nought  |  but  the  torj-rent  is  heard  1  on  the  hill, 
And  nought  |  but  the  night|-ingale's  song  |  in  the  grove.'' 

IV.  In  Dactylic  verse.,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  first,  the  fourth, 
the  seventh,  and  the  tenth  syllable.  Full  Dactylic  forms  triple 
rhyme.  When  one  of  the  final  short  syllables  is  omitted,  the  rhyme 
is  double;  when  both,  single.  Dactylic  with  single  rhyme,  is  the 
same  as  anapestic  would  be  without  its  initial  short  syllables.  Dac- 
tylic measure  is  rather  uncommon ;  and,  when  employed,  is  seldom 
perfectly  regular. 


CHAP.  IV."]  PROSODY. — ^VERSmCATIOIT.  119 

EXAMPLlJ. 

Holy  and  1  pure  are  the  |  pleasures  of  |  piety, 
Drawn  from  the  |  fountain  of  |  mercy  and  |  love ; 

Endless,  ex[-haustles3,  exj-empt  from  sajtiety, 
Rising  un  [-earthly  and  |  soaring  a[-bove. 

Obs. — The  more  pure  these  several  kinds  of  poetic  measure  are 
preserved,  the  more  exact  and  complete  is  the  chime  of  the  verse. 
But,  to  avoid  disagreeable  monotony,  the  poets  generally  indulge 
some  variety ;  not  so  much,  however,  as  to  confound  the  drift  of 
the  rhythmical  pulsations. 


APPENDIX. 

A    KEY 

TO  THE 

EXAMPLES    OP    FALSE     SYNTAX. 


[To  task  the  learner,  is  right  to  puzzle  him,  is  wrong.  All  embarrassment  is 
ahar  to  progress;  all  stopping  or  faltering  in  rehearsal,  is  a  disagreeable  waste  of 
time.  These,  therefore,  should  be  prevented  as  fully  as  they  can  be;  and  the  reciter, 
especially  if  he  be  in  a  school-class,  should  be  prompted  to  go  always  through  his  part 
with  a  free,  unhesitating,  and  manlike  utterance.  Instruction  and  exercise,  in  due 
rotation,  are  the  young  grammarian's  carriage-wheels,  both  fore  and  hind;  but  his 
progress  in  the  course,  like  that  of  hira  who  rides  the  velocipede,  depends  niainly  oa 
his  own  efforts.  If  any  one  need  this  Key,  let  him  use  it;  those  who  do  not  need  it, 
will  not  care  to  turn  to  it. 

The  examples  of  False  Syntax,  of  which  the  following  sentences  are  the  full  amended 
readings,  sliould  be  corrected  orallj^hy  the  pupil,  according  to  the  formules  which  aro 
given  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Part  Third ;  and  afterwards  these  corrections  may  be  used 
as  examples  {ov  parsing,  if  more  texts  for  that  sort  of  exercise  be  desired.  The  first 
example  of  each  lesson  is  not  inserted  here,  because  it  is  fully  corrected  in  the  for- 
mule,] 

Lesson  L— Under  Rule  II. — IN'ominatives. 

2.  S^e  that  loiters  by  the  way,  may  be  belatecL  3.  They  that 
labour,  should  be  rewarded.  4.  We  who  are  spared,  ought  to  be 
thankful.  5.  You  and  /are  equally  concerned.  6.  Are  not  thou 
and  7i(3  related  ?  7.  My  brother  is  older  than /.  8.  He  cannot  read 
s©  well  as  tJioii.  9.  Who  fastened  the  door  1  I.  10.  Who  do  you 
suppose  did  it? 

Lesson  II. — Under  Rule  III. — Apposition. 

2.  That  was  the  tailoress,  she  that  made  my  clothes.  3.  I  saw 
your  friend,  i'Jm  that  was  here  last  winter.  4.  Dennis,  the  gar- 
dener, he  that  gave  me  the  tulips,  has  promised  me  a  piony. 

Lesson  III. — Under  Rule  Y. — Pronouns.   ^ 

2.  Every  one  must  judge  of  his  own  feelings.  3.  "We  may  be 
displeased  with  a  person  without  hating  hiin.  4.  I  poured  water 
on  the  embers  to  quench  them.  5.  Ask  her  for  the  scissors,  and 
bring  them  to  me.  6.  He  had  sown  the  oats,  and  they  had  already 
sprung  up. 

Lesson  IV. — Under  Rule  VI. — Pronouns. 
2.  The  people  will  not  relinquish  their  rights.     3.  The  clergy 


KEY  TO   FALSE   SYNTAX.  121 

had  declared  their  intention.  4.  Tlie  party  disagreed  among  them- 
selves. 5.  The  committee  were  unanimous,  and  thia  is  their  award. 
6.  The  company  then  renewed  their  claims. 

Lessox  Y. — Under  Rule  YII. — Pronouns. 

3.  Avoid  lightness  and  frivolity :  they  are  allied  to  folly.  3. 
Truth  and  honesty  cannot  fail  of  their  reward.  4.  Learning  and 
good  sense  always  adorn  their  possessor.  5.  Banish  envy  and 
strife,  lest  they  utterly  destroy  your  peace.  6.  Cherish  love  and 
unity  :  they  are  the  life  of  society. 

Lesson  YI. — Under  Eule  YIH. — ^Pronouns. 

2.  Can  justice  or  truth  change  its  nature?  3.  One  or  the  other 
must  relinquish  his  claim.  4.  Neither  the  lion  nor  the  tiger  will 
bow  his  neck  to  the  yoke,  5.  The  horse  or  the  ox  will  lend  theo 
Ms  strength.  6.  Neither  my  father  nor  my  master  would  give  his 
consent. 

Lesson  YII. — Under  Rule  IX. — ^^'^ERBs. 

2.  Appearances  are  often  deceptive.  3.  The  propriety  of  such 
restrictions  is  doubtful.  4.  There  are  windows  on  three  sides  of 
the  room.  5.  Thou  seest  the  difficulties  with  which  I  am  sur- 
rounded.    6.  What  do  all  my  exertions  avail  ? 

Lesson  YIII. — Under  Rule  X. — ^Yerbs. 

2.  The  nobility  were  assured  that  he  would  not  interpose.  8. 
The  committee  have  attended  to  their  appointment.  4.  The  ma- 
jority were  disposed  to  adopt  the  measure.  5.  All  the  world  are 
spectators  of  your  conduct.  6.  Blessed  are  the  people  that  know 
the  joyful  sound. 

Lesson  IX. — Under  Rule  XI. — Yerbs. 

2.  Temperance  and  exercise  preserve  health.  3.  My  love  and 
affection  towards  thee  remain  unaltered.  4.  "Wealth,  honour,  and 
happiness, /(:)?'saZ:e  the  indolent.  5.  My  flesh  and  my  h.'^oxt  fail.  6. 
In  all  his  works,  there  are  sprightliness  and  vigour. 

Lesson  X. — ^Under  Rule  XII. — Yerbs. 

2.  No  axe  or  hammer  has  ever  aicahened  an  echo  here.  3.  "What 
the  heart  or  the  imagination  dictates^  flows  readily.  4.  Neither 
authority  nor  analogy  supports  such  an  opinion.  5,  Either  ability 
or  inclination  was  wanting.  6.  He  comes — nor  want  nor  cold  his 
course  delays. 

Lesson  XI. — ^Under  Rule  XIII. — ^Yerbs. 

2.  Does  not  he  waste  his  time,  and  neglect  his  les.^ons?  3.  Did 
not  she  send,  and  give  you  this  information  ?  4.  Tlieir  honours 
are  departing,  and  coming  to  an  end.  5.  He  had  retired  to  his 
farm,  and  he  appeared  to  be  happy  there.  6.  He  was  elected  to 
the  office,  but  he  would  not  serve. 


X22  APPENDIX. 

Lesson  XII.^p— Under  Eule  XX. — Objectives, 

2.  Thee  only  have  I  chosen.  3.  Whom  shall  we  send  on  this 
errand  ?  4.  My  father  allowed  my  brother  and  me  to  accompany 
him.  5.  Him  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply.  6. 
Whom  should  I  meet  but  my  okl  friend ! 

Lesson  XIII. — Undek  Eule  XXL-^Same  Oases, 

2.  We  thought  it  was  tJiou.  3.  I  would  act  the  same  part,  if  I 
were  he.  4.  It  could  not  have  been  she.  5.  It  is  not  /,  that  he  is 
angry  with.     6.  They  believed  it  to  be  oiie. 

Lesson  XIV. — Under  Eule  XXII. — Objectives. 

2.  Let  that  remain  a  secret  between  you  and  me.  3.  I  lent  the 
book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  whom.  4.  Let  no  quarrel  occur 
among  us  three  fellows.  5.  Whom  did  he  inquire  for  ?  Thee.  6. 
From  him  that  is  needy,  turn  not  away. 

Lesson  XV. — Under  Eule  XXIII.— Infinitives. 

2.  Please  to  excuse  my  son's  absence.  8.  Cause  every  man  to 
go  out  from  me.  4.  Eorbid  them  to  enter  the  garden.  5.  Do  you 
not  perceive  it  to  move  ?  6.  Allow  others  to  discover  your  merit. 
7.  He  was  seen  to  go  in  at  that  gate. 

Lesson  XVI. — Under  Eule  XXIV. — Infinitives. 

2.  I  felt  a  chilling  sensation  creep  over  me.  3.  I  have  heard  him 
mention  the  subject.  4.  Bid  the  boys  come  in  immediately.  5.  I 
dare  say  he  has  not  got  home  yet.  6.  Let  no  rash  promise  ie 
made. 

Lesson  XVIL — ^Under  Eule  XXV. — ^^om.  Absolute. 

2.  /being  young,  they  deceived  me.  3.  Thei/ refusing  to  com- 
ply, I  withdrew.  4.  The  child  is  lost ;  and  /,  whither  shall  I  go  ? 
5.  Thou  being  present,  he  would  not  tell  what  he  knew.  6.  Arise, 
and  gird  thyself,  O  thou  that  sleepest!  7.  O  wretched  we/  shut 
from  the  light  of  hope !  8.  "  Thou  too  !  Brutus,  my  son  !"  cried 
CsBsar  overcome. 

9.  "  But  he,  the  chieftain  of  them  all. 

His  sword  hangs  rusting  on  the  wall." —  W.  Scott. 

Lesson  XVIII. — ^Under  Eule  XXVI. — Subjunctives. 

2.  I  shall  walk  out  in  the  afternoon,  unless  it  rain.  3.  If 
thou  felt  as  I  do,  we  should  soon  decide.  4.  I  knew  thou  tcast  not 
slow  to  hear.  5.  Let  liiin  take  heed  lest  h&  fall.  6.  If  thou  cast 
me  off,  I  shall  be  miserabk.  7.  I  believed,  whatever  were  the 
issue,  all  would  be  well.  8.  If  he  were  an  impostor,  he  must  have 
been  detected. 

END  OF   TOE  volume. 


YB  36433 


— '   ^^  ^^- 


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